# The Other Scriptures: An Analysis of the Books Excluded from the Biblical Canon ## Introduction The Bible, for many a singular and divinely authored volume, is more accurately understood as a curated library—a canon—assembled over centuries of intense debate, theological conflict, and evolving community practice. The collection of texts that constitute the modern Bible did not emerge fully formed but is the result of a protracted process of selection and exclusion. This process was driven by the need to define the boundaries of faith and community in a period of immense religious diversity. The victory of one particular stream of early Christianity, now known as proto-orthodoxy, led to the establishment of a specific set of authoritative scriptures. In doing so, it simultaneously marginalized a vast and vibrant body of literature that offered alternative, and often contradictory, perspectives on the nature of God, the identity of Jesus, and the path to salvation. This report provides a comprehensive analysis of these "other scriptures," examining the historical processes that led to their exclusion from the biblical canon, the content and controversies of key non-canonical texts, and the complex interplay of theological, political, and social forces that shaped the Bible as it is known today. ## Part I: The Landscape of Non-Canonical Literature Before a book could be excluded from the Bible, there had to exist a wide field of literary candidates from which to choose. The first few centuries of the Common Era were a period of prolific textual production within both Jewish and nascent Christian communities. Understanding this diverse literary landscape is essential to appreciating why the process of canonization became a necessity for the emerging church. ### The Other Jewish Scriptures: Deuterocanonicals and Pseudepigrapha Early Christians were heirs to the rich textual traditions of Second Temple Judaism, which included a much broader collection of writings than what is found in the modern Jewish or Protestant Old Testament. #### The Deuterocanonical Books (The Apocrypha) This collection comprises seven books: Tobit, Judith, 1 and 2 Maccabees, the Wisdom of Solomon, Sirach (also known as Ecclesiasticus), and Baruch, along with additions to the books of Esther and Daniel. These texts were included in the Septuagint, the [Greek translation of the Hebrew scriptures](https://catholic-resources.org/Bible/Heb-Xn-Bibles%20Chart.pdf) produced in the final centuries BCE, which became the primary Old Testament for the Greek-speaking early Christian church. Consequently, they are [considered canonical Scripture](https://catholic-resources.org/Bible/Non-Canonical.htm) by the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches, who refer to them as "deuterocanonical," meaning "second canon". Protestant traditions, following the Hebrew canon finalized by Rabbinic Judaism, generally [exclude these books](https://catholic-resources.org/Bible/Heb-Xn-Bibles%20Chart.pdf) or place them in a separate section called the Apocrypha. #### The Pseudepigrapha Beyond the deuterocanonical works lies a vast category of texts known as the Pseudepigrapha, meaning "false writings," so named because they were often [written under the pseudonym](https://catholic-resources.org/Bible/Non-Canonical.htm) of a famous biblical figure to lend them authority. Works like the Book of Enoch and the Book of Jubilees were immensely influential in early Christian thought, shaping views on angelology, demonology, and eschatology. The canonical New Testament Epistle of Jude, for instance, directly quotes a passage from 1 Enoch (Jude 1:14-15). Despite this influence, these works were ultimately excluded from all but a few Christian canons (the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, for example, retains the Book of Enoch). #### The Lost Books of the Old Testament The canonical Old Testament itself provides evidence that its authors drew from an even wider library of sources that have since been lost to history. These texts are not apocryphal but are referenced as authoritative or historical sources by the biblical writers themselves. Examples include the "Book of the Wars of the LORD" (Numbers 21:14), the "Book of Jasher" (Joshua 10:13), the "Acts of Solomon" (1 Kings 11:41), and various "Annals of the Kings of Israel" and "Annals of the Kings of Judah" that are [cited repeatedly](https://www.blueletterbible.org/Comm/stewart_don/faq/right-books-in-old-testament/question11-non-canonical-books-old-testament.cfm) in the books of Kings and Chronicles. The existence of these references demonstrates that the Old Testament canon is itself a selection from a larger body of ancient Israelite literature. ### The New Testament Apocrypha: A Survey of Genres The first few centuries of Christianity saw an explosion of literary production as different communities sought to record, interpret, and expand upon the stories and teachings of Jesus and the apostles. This body of work, known as the New Testament Apocrypha, mirrors the genres of the canonical New Testament but often introduces different theological perspectives. **Apocryphal Gospels:** This is the most famous category, encompassing a wide variety of texts. These include sayings gospels, such as the Gospel of Thomas, which present [collections of Jesus's teachings](https://catholic-resources.org/Bible/Non-Canonical.htm) without a narrative framework. Infancy gospels, like the Infancy Gospel of Thomas, offer [fantastical stories](https://catholic-resources.org/Bible/Non-Canonical.htm) about Jesus's childhood. Passion and resurrection gospels, such as the Gospel of Peter, provide alternative accounts of Jesus's final days. Finally, a large number of Gnostic gospels, such as the Gospel of Mary and the Gospel of Judas, present Jesus in dialogue with his disciples, revealing [secret knowledge](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Gnostic_texts) necessary for salvation. **Apocryphal Acts:** These texts narrate the later missionary journeys, miracles, and martyrdoms of the apostles, often with highly legendary and dramatic elements. The Acts of Paul and Thecla, for example, tells the story of a female companion of Paul, while the [Acts of Peter](https://catholic-resources.org/Bible/Non-Canonical.htm) includes a famous account of Peter being crucified upside down. **Apocryphal Epistles and Apocalypses:** This category includes letters written in the names of apostles, such as the Epistle to the Laodiceans (mentioned in Colossians 4:16), and apocalypses, or "revelations," that expand upon the genre of the canonical Book of Revelation. The Apocalypse of Peter, for instance, was widely read in the early church and offers [graphic tours](https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/bt6b32/from_a_historians_perspective_are_there_any_new/) of heaven and hell. The sheer volume and diversity of this literature reveal that in the first few centuries, the concept of "scripture" was far more fluid than it is today. Different communities held different books as authoritative, and the line between an inspired text, an influential teaching, and a pious story was not yet sharply drawn. The fact that canonical authors themselves cited non-canonical and lost sources further underscores that the "Bible" was not a fixed entity from the beginning but an evolving collection. The process of canonization was therefore not one of passively receiving a pre-ordained list, but of actively creating one through a deliberate process of selection from a much larger pool of candidates. ## Part II: The Forging of the Canon - A History of Selection The process of forming the biblical canon was not a singular event but a gradual evolution spanning nearly four centuries, driven by the practical needs of church worship, theological controversy, and the push for a unified Christian identity. ### The Gradual Coalescence of the New Testament (1st-4th Centuries) In the first century, the process was organic. The letters of the Apostle [[Paul]] were collected and circulated among various churches, and accounts of Jesus's life and teachings began to be written down. By the middle of the second century, a "core" collection of scriptural books—including the four gospels, the Acts of the Apostles, Paul's thirteen epistles, and several other texts—was [functioning as Scripture](https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/essay/the-biblical-canon/) in many Christian communities. The Christian apologist [[Justin Martyr]], writing around 150 CE, speaks of the "memoirs of the apostles," which he calls "gospels," being read in [weekly worship](https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/essay/the-biblical-canon/) alongside the Old Testament prophets. A significant catalyst for the formal definition of the canon came from a figure the proto-orthodox church would later brand a heretic: [[Marcion of Sinope]]. Around 140 CE, Marcion proposed the [first known formal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblical_canon) Christian canon. Believing the God of the Old Testament to be a wrathful, inferior deity distinct from the loving Father of Jesus, Marcion rejected the Hebrew scriptures entirely. His canon consisted of only an edited version of the Gospel of Luke and ten of Paul's epistles, which he believed were the only texts that purely represented the true Christian message. Marcion's radical act of selection and exclusion forced the broader church to respond. His narrow, theologically-driven list served as a foil against which the emerging proto-orthodox church began to articulate its own, more inclusive collection of authoritative texts. Church leaders like [[Irenaeus]], the bishop of Lyons, writing around 180 CE, were instrumental in this response. He famously argued for the necessity and self-evidence of a four-gospel canon (the Tetramorph), comparing it to the four corners of the earth and the four winds, thus solidifying the place of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John as the [foundational narratives](https://yalebiblestudy.org/courses/formation-of-the-biblical-canon/lessons/new-testament-study-guide/) of the faith. ### The Criteria for Canonicity: The Rule of Faith As church leaders grappled with the multitude of circulating texts, they developed a set of criteria to serve as a kanōn, a Greek word meaning "measuring stick" or "rule," to determine which books were genuinely apostolic and authoritative. Three primary [principles guided](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblical_canon) this process: **Apostolicity:** This was the paramount criterion. A book had to be written by an apostle or a close associate of an apostle. This principle was designed to ground the canon in the testimony of the original eyewitnesses to Jesus's ministry. Books like Matthew and John were accepted based on their apostolic names, while Mark was accepted due to his traditional association with the Apostle [[Peter]], and Luke for his connection to the Apostle [[Paul]]. **Orthodoxy (Rule of Faith):** A text's teachings had to conform to the "rule of faith"—the core tradition of belief that had been handed down in the major apostolic churches. This criterion functioned as a theological filter, ensuring that canonical books were consistent with widely accepted doctrines about the nature of God, the person and work of Christ, and the means of salvation. It was this standard that proved insurmountable for most Gnostic gospels, whose theological frameworks were deemed [incompatible with](https://episcopalschool.teachable.com/courses/215188/lectures/3339191) the apostolic tradition. **Catholicity (Universality):** This criterion assessed a book's reception among churches throughout the Christian world. Texts that were widely accepted and used in worship services from an early date, such as the four gospels and Paul's letters, were seen as having proven their value and authority. In contrast, books that had only local circulation or were used exclusively by small, sectarian groups were [viewed with suspicion](https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/essay/the-biblical-canon/). These criteria were not neutral, academic standards. They were tools wielded by the proto-orthodox leadership to validate the texts that supported their theological framework and institutional structure, while simultaneously delegitimizing those that challenged them. "Orthodoxy" was defined by the very group consolidating power, and "catholicity" inherently favored the larger, more widespread movement over smaller, dissenting factions. Thus, the theological and political motivations behind the canon's formation were inseparable. ### The Role of the Councils: Clarification, Not Creation A persistent modern myth, popularized by works like The Da Vinci Code, claims that the books of the Bible were chosen by a vote at the First Council of Nicaea in 325 CE, under the direction of the Roman Emperor [[Constantine]]. This narrative is [historically baseless](https://ps.edu/council-nicaea-biblical-canon/). The extant records from Nicaea, including the accounts of eyewitnesses like [[Eusebius of Caesarea]] and [[Athanasius of Alexandria]], show that the council's purpose was to resolve the Arian controversy over the divinity of Christ; the biblical canon was not on the agenda. The fanciful story of bishops placing all competing gospels on an altar and praying for the inspired ones to remain while the spurious ones fell to the floor is a much later legend, originating in a late 9th-century Greek manuscript called the Synodicon Vetus and popularized by Enlightenment critics like [[Voltaire]]. The actual formalization of the 27-book New Testament canon occurred later, in a series of local North African councils: the Council of Laodicea (c. 363 CE), which affirmed a list of 26 books (omitting Revelation), and the Councils of Hippo (393 CE) and Carthage (397 CE), which affirmed the [27-book list](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblical_canon) that is standard today. It is crucial to understand that these councils did not create the canon from scratch. Rather, they ratified and gave official sanction to the consensus that had already been developing organically within the churches for over two centuries. Their decisions were a formal recognition of the books that had already met the criteria of apostolicity, orthodoxy, and catholicity through [long-standing use](https://www.gotquestions.org/canon-Bible.html) and acceptance. ## Part III: In-Depth Analysis of Key Excluded Gospels While dozens of texts were ultimately left out of the New Testament, a few have captured modern attention for the radical alternatives they present. An examination of these key gospels reveals precisely how their content failed to meet the criteria of the emerging proto-orthodox church. ### The Gospel of Thomas: A Gospel of Secret Sayings **Content and Structure:** Discovered in its complete Coptic form at Nag Hammadi in 1945, the Gospel of Thomas is a [collection of 114 logia](https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/abstract/document/obo-9780195393361/obo-9780195393361-0047.xml#:~:text=The%20Gospel%20of%20Thomas%20is,his%20death%2C%20or%20his%20resurrection.), or sayings, attributed to Jesus. It has no narrative of Jesus's life, ministry, death, or resurrection. Its opening line sets the tone: "These are the secret words that the living Jesus spoke and Didymos Judas Thomas wrote them down. And he said, 'Whoever finds the interpretation of these words will not taste death'". Salvation, therefore, comes not through faith in an event, but through [esoteric understanding](https://www.bartehrman.com/gospel-of-thomas/) of Jesus's teachings. **Gnostic Themes:** The Jesus of Thomas teaches that the "Kingdom of God" is not a future apocalyptic event but a present reality spread across the earth, hidden from those who cannot see it; it is "inside of you, and it is outside of you". The fundamental human problem is not sin but ignorance (agnosia) of one's divine origin. Through self-knowledge, one can recognize their inner divinity and return to the [realm of light](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Gospel-of-Thomas) from which they came. **Criticism and Flaws:** Although attributed to the apostle Thomas, scholars universally agree it is pseudepigraphal and dates to the early-to-mid 2nd century CE, making it later than the canonical gospels and not an eyewitness account. Its historical value is fiercely debated; while a minority of scholars believe it may preserve some independent and very early traditions of Jesus's sayings, the prevailing view is that it is dependent on the Synoptic Gospels, whose content has been redacted to fit a [Gnostic theological framework](https://www.bartehrman.com/gospel-of-thomas/). Its theology is radically different from the canonical accounts, lacking a passion narrative and a Jewish eschatological framework. Its final saying (114), in which Jesus states that he will make Mary Magdalene "male, so that she too may become a living spirit," is seen as deeply at odds with the canonical message of salvation for all, regardless of gender. ### The Gospel of Mary: Revelation, Authority, and the Role of the Feminine **Content and Structure:** This 2nd-century text, preserved in a fragmentary Coptic manuscript, presents a post-resurrection scene. After Jesus departs, the male disciples are grieving and fearful. [[Mary Magdalene]] steps forward to comfort them, reminding them of Jesus's enduring presence. [[Peter]] then asks her to share any special teachings she may have received, acknowledging that "the Savior loved you more than the rest of the women". Mary then recounts a vision in which the risen Lord revealed to her the soul's perilous ascent past four hostile cosmic powers: Darkness, Desire, Ignorance, and Wrath. **Challenge to Authority:** The gospel's dramatic core is the conflict that erupts after Mary shares her revelation. The Apostle [[Andrew]] expresses doubt, stating that the teachings are "strange ideas." Peter is more hostile, questioning the other disciples: "Did He really speak with a woman without our knowledge (and) not openly? Are we to turn about and all listen to her? Did He prefer her to us?". Mary weeps at this rejection, but is defended by [[Levi]] (often identified with Matthew), who rebukes Peter: "Peter, you have always been hot-tempered. Now I see you contending against the woman like the adversaries". **Criticism and Flaws:** The text is not a historical record of post-resurrection events but is widely interpreted as a reflection of [2nd-century church politics](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel_of_Mary). It dramatizes the debate over the legitimacy of visionary experience versus established tradition and, most significantly, the struggle over the role of women in leadership. Its Gnostic affinities are present in the themes of secret revelation and the soul's ascent, though some scholars note it lacks the fully developed dualistic cosmology of other Gnostic texts. Its primary "heresy," in the eyes of the proto-orthodox, was its bold elevation of a woman to a position of spiritual authority and privileged revelation, directly challenging the emerging patriarchal hierarchy centered on Peter. ### The Gospel of Judas: A Gnostic Reimagining of Betrayal **Content and Structure:** This Coptic text, a translation of a mid-2nd-century Greek original, radically reframes the story of Jesus's betrayal. It portrays [[Judas Iscariot]] not as a traitor, but as Jesus's most intimate and enlightened disciple, the only one who truly understands his divine origin. The gospel consists of dialogues in which Jesus shares secret knowledge (gnosis) with Judas, revealing a complex Gnostic cosmology. He explains that the creator god of the Old Testament, worshipped by the other disciples, is a lesser, ignorant ruler (named Saklas or Yaldabaoth) and that a true, transcendent God exists in an [immortal realm](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Gospel-of-Judas) called Barbelo. **The "Good" Betrayal:** In this narrative, Jesus's death is a necessary act of liberation. He instructs Judas, "You will exceed all of them. For you will sacrifice the man that clothes me". The "betrayal" is thus an act of supreme obedience, helping Jesus's divine spirit escape the prison of his physical body. Judas becomes the [instrument of Jesus's salvation](https://probe.org/a-brief-overview-of-the-gospel-of-judas/), not his downfall. **Criticism and Flaws:** The text is a quintessential Gnostic work, known and condemned as heresy by [[Irenaeus]] as early as 180 CE. It has no value as a source for the historical 1st-century Judas; it is a [2nd-century theological polemic](http://www.bible-apologetics.com/articles/judasgospel.htm). Its theology is starkly dualistic, viewing the material world as an evil creation to be escaped. It is also [fundamentally anti-Jewish](https://www.catholicculture.org/culture/library/view.cfm?recnum=7235#:~:text=The%20striking%20anti%2DSemitism%20of,being%20automatically%20destined%20for%20eternal), portraying the God of the Hebrew Bible as an inferior and malevolent being. Furthermore, the initial sensationalized publication of the text by National Geographic, which promoted a "good Judas" narrative, has been criticized by scholars who point to mistranslations. For instance, the word daimon was translated as "spirit" when in other Gnostic texts it is consistently rendered "demon," suggesting a much more [sinister portrayal](https://www.catholicnewsagency.com/news/12909/gospel-of-judas-story-criticized-for-scholarly-malpractice) of Judas than was first presented. ### Table: Comparative Analysis of Key Excluded Gospels |Gospel Title|Estimated Date (CE)|Attributed Author|Core Message/Theology|Primary Reason for Exclusion (based on Canonicity Criteria)|Scholarly Assessment of Historical Value| |---|---|---|---|---|---| |Gospel of Thomas|100-150|Thomas the Apostle|Salvation through secret knowledge (gnosis) of Jesus's sayings; the Kingdom of God is an internal, present reality.|Orthodoxy: Gnostic theology; lacks passion/resurrection narrative. Apostolicity: Late date and pseudepigraphal.|Low to moderate. Likely dependent on canonical gospels, but may contain some early, independent traditions.| |Gospel of Mary|120-180|Mary Magdalene|Post-resurrection revelation to Mary about the soul's ascent; dramatizes conflict over female leadership and visionary authority.|Orthodoxy: Gnostic themes; challenges Petrine authority. Catholicity: Limited circulation.|Low. Valued as a window into 2nd-century Christian debates, not as a historical account of events.| |Gospel of Judas|130-170|Judas Iscariot|Judas is the hero who, at Jesus's command, facilitates his spirit's escape from the evil material body.|Orthodoxy: Radically Gnostic and dualistic; anti-Jewish. Apostolicity: Late date and pseudepigraphal.|None. A 2nd-century Gnostic fiction with no bearing on the historical Judas.| |Gospel of Peter|100-150|Peter the Apostle|A passion and resurrection narrative with legendary elements, including a talking cross and a gigantic Jesus emerging from the tomb.|Orthodoxy: Docetic tendencies (denies Jesus's true suffering). Apostolicity: Late date and pseudepigraphal.|Low. An example of early Christian legendary embellishment of the canonical story.| |Infancy Gospel of Thomas|150-200|Thomas the Apostle|Stories of Jesus's childhood, portraying him as a powerful but petulant child who performs miracles and curses his playmates.|Orthodoxy: Portrays a character inconsistent with the canonical Jesus. Apostolicity: Late, legendary, and pseudepigraphal.|None. Considered a pious but fanciful fiction by the early church and modern scholars.| ## Part IV: The Great Divorce - Why Were They Excluded? The exclusion of these and other texts from the biblical canon was not arbitrary. It was the result of a profound theological and social struggle to define the very essence of Christianity. The reasons can be understood on multiple levels, from explicit doctrinal disagreements to implicit power struggles over the future direction of the church. ### Theological Incompatibility: The Proto-Orthodox Conflict with Gnosticism The most direct and frequently stated reason for the exclusion of many non-canonical gospels was their profound theological incompatibility with the [rule of faith](https://episcopalschool.teachable.com/courses/215188/lectures/3339191) being consolidated by the proto-orthodox church. This conflict centered on three irreconcilable points of doctrine: **The Nature of God:** Proto-orthodox Christianity inherited from Judaism a staunch monotheism: there is one, good God who is the creator of all things, both spiritual and material. Gnosticism, in contrast, was fundamentally dualistic. It posited a distinction between a remote, unknowable, transcendent God and a lesser, subordinate creator-god (the Demiurge), who fashioned the flawed, material universe. This Demiurge was often identified with the God of the Old Testament and viewed as [ignorant, arrogant, or even malevolent](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Gospel-of-Judas). **The Nature of Christ (Christology):** For the proto-orthodox, the Incarnation was central: Jesus was fully God and fully human, his physical body and suffering being essential to salvation. Many Gnostic systems espoused a docetic Christology, from the Greek dokein ("to seem" or "to appear"). They argued that the divine Christ could not truly unite with evil matter; therefore, he only appeared to have a human body, to suffer, and to die. This view is reflected in the Gospel of Judas, where Jesus's body is merely a "garment" to be discarded. **The Nature of Salvation (Soteriology):** Proto-orthodox teaching centered on salvation through faith in Christ's atoning death and bodily resurrection. For Gnostics, salvation was achieved through gnosis—a secret, esoteric knowledge revealed by a divine messenger. This knowledge awakens the divine spark within the soul, reminding it of its true origin and enabling it to escape the prison of the physical body and the material cosmos upon death. ### Alternative Explanations: Power, Politics, and the Push for Uniformity Beyond these theological disputes, the process of canonization was inherently a political act, designed to consolidate institutional authority and forge a unified Christian identity in a hostile Roman world. The structure of the proto-orthodox church was becoming increasingly hierarchical, based on the principle of apostolic succession, which held that authority was passed down in an unbroken line from the apostles to their appointed successors, the bishops. This model provided a clear chain of command and a locus of teaching authority. Gnostic Christianity, with its emphasis on personal, unmediated revelation, posed a direct threat to this structure. If any individual could receive a secret vision from Jesus, as Mary Magdalene does in her gospel, the authority of the bishop as the sole legitimate interpreter of tradition was fundamentally undermined. The canon, by limiting authoritative revelation to a closed set of apostolic texts, served to protect and legitimize the authority of the bishops who were their designated guardians. Furthermore, for Christianity to survive and expand, it needed a coherent and unified message. A potential convert in the 2nd or 3rd century was faced with a bewildering array of Christianities—Marcionite, Valentinian, Sethian, proto-orthodox, and more. The formation of a single, universally recognized canon was a crucial step in creating a unified "brand identity." It ensured that a Christian in Rome and a Christian in Alexandria shared the same foundational stories, beliefs, and ethical teachings, fostering a sense of a single, "catholic" (or universal) church. ### The Suppression of Dissent: Was Knowledge Forbidden or Hidden? The question of whether certain knowledge was deliberately hidden or forbidden because it was "too damaging" is complex. The answer depends on what, and to whom, it was considered damaging. The teachings in texts like the Gospel of Mary or the Gospel of Philip were not necessarily damaging to the idea of Jesus's divinity, but they were profoundly damaging to the specific patriarchal power structure that was solidifying its control over the church. A tradition that elevated Mary Magdalene to a position of preeminent discipleship, the "apostle to the apostles," who received special teachings and was loved by Jesus "more than all the disciples," was a direct challenge to a hierarchy being built around the authority of Peter and the other male apostles. The exclusion of such texts was part of a broader historical trend in the 2nd through 4th centuries, during which the active roles of women as prophets, teachers, and leaders in the church were [systematically curtailed](https://commons.emich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1064&context=honors) by influential church fathers like [[Tertullian]] and through formal church legislation. The final canon, therefore, reflects the theology and the ecclesiology of the group that won these power struggles. In this sense, the knowledge was not "hidden" in a conspiratorial fashion, as if a secret committee buried scrolls in the desert. Rather, it was systematically marginalized and suppressed. Proto-orthodox leaders actively preached against these alternative texts, branded them as heretical, and urged believers not to read them. Access to this knowledge was indeed forbidden, not to hide a secret "truth" about Jesus's personal life, but to protect what they had defined as the essential "truth" of the institutional church and its apostolic faith. The "forks in the road" of early Christianity were points where a theological decision had a profound and lasting political and social impact on the shape of the faith for millennia to come. ## Part V: The Modern Bible and Its Variants The historical process of canon formation resulted in different outcomes for various branches of Christianity, leading to the different versions of the Bible in use today. While there is near-universal agreement on the New Testament, significant differences remain in the Old Testament. ### The Protestant, Catholic, and Orthodox Canons: A Comparative Analysis The 27 books of the New Testament are accepted as canonical by virtually all major Christian traditions. The primary divergence lies in the Old Testament, where three major canons are in use: **The Protestant Canon:** This Old Testament consists of 39 books. It is based on the canon of the Hebrew Bible (the Tanakh) as it was finalized by Rabbinic Judaism around the end of the 1st century CE. **The Catholic Canon:** This Old Testament contains 46 books. It includes the 39 books of the Protestant canon plus the seven deuterocanonical books (Tobit, Judith, 1 & 2 Maccabees, Wisdom of Solomon, Sirach, and Baruch) and additions to Daniel and Esther. This larger canon is based on the widespread use of the [Greek Septuagint](https://www.bartehrman.com/deuterocanonical-books/#:~:text=In%20Catholic%20Bibles%2C%20the%20most,and%201%20and%202%20Maccabees.) in the early church. **The Orthodox Canon:** This is the most expansive Old Testament. It includes all the books of the Catholic canon and adds several other texts, such as 1 Esdras (called 2 Esdras in the Slavonic tradition), the Prayer of Manasseh, Psalm 151, and 3 Maccabees. Some Orthodox traditions also include 4 Maccabees as an appendix. ### Table: Comparative Old Testament Canons The following table illustrates the differences between the Old Testament canons of the three major Christian traditions. Books included in the Catholic and Orthodox canons but not the Protestant canon are known as Deuterocanonical books (or Apocrypha). |Book|Protestant OT (39 Books)|Catholic OT (46 Books)|Eastern Orthodox OT (~51 Books)| |---|---|---|---| |**The Pentateuch**|||| |Genesis|✓|✓|✓| |Exodus|✓|✓|✓| |Leviticus|✓|✓|✓| |Numbers|✓|✓|✓| |Deuteronomy|✓|✓|✓| |**Historical Books**|||| |Joshua|✓|✓|✓| |Judges|✓|✓|✓| |Ruth|✓|✓|✓| |1 Samuel|✓|✓|✓| |2 Samuel|✓|✓|✓| |1 Kings|✓|✓|✓| |2 Kings|✓|✓|✓| |1 Chronicles|✓|✓|✓| |2 Chronicles|✓|✓|✓| |Ezra|✓|✓|✓| |Nehemiah|✓|✓|✓| |Tobit||✓|✓| |Judith||✓|✓| |Esther|✓|✓ (with additions)|✓ (with additions)| |1 Maccabees||✓|✓| |2 Maccabees||✓|✓| |3 Maccabees|||✓| |4 Maccabees|||(Appendix)| |1 Esdras|||✓| |**Wisdom Literature**|||| |Job|✓|✓|✓| |Psalms|✓|✓|✓ (includes Psalm 151)| |Proverbs|✓|✓|✓| |Ecclesiastes|✓|✓|✓| |Song of Solomon|✓|✓|✓| |Wisdom of Solomon||✓|✓| |Sirach (Ecclesiasticus)||✓|✓| |Prayer of Manasseh|||✓| |**The Prophets**|||| |Isaiah|✓|✓|✓| |Jeremiah|✓|✓|✓| |Lamentations|✓|✓|✓| |Baruch||✓|✓| |Letter of Jeremiah||(Part of Baruch)|✓| |Ezekiel|✓|✓|✓| |Daniel|✓|✓ (with additions)|✓ (with additions)| |Hosea|✓|✓|✓| |Joel|✓|✓|✓| |Amos|✓|✓|✓| |Obadiah|✓|✓|✓| |Jonah|✓|✓|✓| |Micah|✓|✓|✓| |Nahum|✓|✓|✓| |Habakkuk|✓|✓|✓| |Zephaniah|✓|✓|✓| |Haggai|✓|✓|✓| |Zechariah|✓|✓|✓| |Malachi|✓|✓|✓| ### Locating and Reading the Excluded Texts For those interested in exploring these non-canonical texts, numerous scholarly resources provide reliable English translations, often with critical introductions and notes that place the works in their historical context. **Online Archives:** - [The Gnostic Society Library](http://gnosis.org/naghamm/nhl.html): This site hosts the entire Nag Hammadi Library, including the Gospels of Thomas, Philip, and Truth, along with other Gnostic scriptures. Digital images of the original codices are also available via the [Claremont Colleges Digital Library](https://ccdl.claremont.edu/digital/collection/nha). - [Early Christian Writings](https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/apocrypha.html): This is a comprehensive online collection of early Christian literature, providing translations and scholarly information on a vast array of apocryphal gospels, acts, and epistles. - [The Wesley Center Online](https://wesley.nnu.edu/noncanonical-literature/): This resource offers a collection of noncanonical Jewish and Christian texts, including Old Testament Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha. **Published Anthologies:** For in-depth study, scholarly collections are invaluable. Key works include _The Nag Hammadi Scriptures_, edited by [[Marvin Meyer]], and _New Testament Apocrypha_, a multi-volume work originally edited by [[Wilhelm Schneemelcher]], which are considered [standard academic resources](http://gnosis.org/naghamm/nhl.html). ## Conclusion The formation of the biblical canon was a protracted and profoundly human process, driven by a search for authentic tradition amidst a flourishing of diverse Christian expression. The final canon is not a complete collection of all early Christian writings but rather a carefully selected library representing the theological and institutional triumph of the proto-orthodox movement. This movement defined itself through a process of selection and exclusion, a process guided by theological principles that were simultaneously tools of political and social consolidation, used to forge a unified church with a clear line of authority and a coherent message. The excluded texts, from the Gnostic dialogues of Nag Hammadi to the infancy gospels and apocryphal acts, are therefore not merely historical curiosities. They are vital witnesses to the "lost Christianities"—the alternative ways of understanding Jesus and his message that were ultimately deemed too challenging, too radical, or too damaging to the institutional church that would come to dominate Western history. The Gospel of Thomas reveals a path to salvation through inner knowledge, not external events. The Gospel of Mary champions the authority of visionary experience and female leadership. The Gospel of Judas presents a radical reinterpretation of creation and betrayal. These texts remind us that the story of early Christianity was far richer, more complex, and more contentious than the final, bound volume of the Bible might suggest. Their rediscovery in modern times invites a deeper engagement with this history, revealing that the search for truth is ongoing and that even long-silenced voices can echo across the ages, inviting us to listen anew. ## Works Cited - [An Overview of Non-Canonical Jewish and Early Christian Literature - Catholic Resources](https://catholic-resources.org/Bible/Non-Canonical.htm) - [Books Not in Protestant Bible | Franciscan Media](https://www.franciscanmedia.org/ask-a-franciscan/books-not-in-protestant-bible/) - [Deuterocanonical books](https://www.bartehrman.com/deuterocanonical-books/#:~:text=In%20Catholic%20Bibles%2C%20the%20most,and%201%20and%202%20Maccabees.) - [Hebrew and Christian Bibles: A Comparative Chart - Catholic](https://catholic-resources.org/Bible/Heb-Xn-Bibles%20Chart.pdf) - [Deuterocanonical books - Wikipedia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deuterocanonical_books) - [Deuterocanonical Books: Study Materials - Catholic Resources](https://catholic-resources.org/Bible/Deuterocanonicals.htm) - [Noncanonical Gospels | Religious Studies Center - BYU](https://rsc.byu.edu/new-testament-history-culture-society/noncanonical-gospels) - [How does Christian explain the mentioning of non-canonical books referenced in the Bible? : r/AskAChristian - Reddit](https://www.reddit.com/r/AskAChristian/comments/oycg98/how_does_christian_explain_the_mentioning_of/) - [What Were the Non-Canonical Books That Were Mentioned in the Old Testament? - Blue Letter Bible](https://www.blueletterbible.org/Comm/stewart_don/faq/right-books-in-old-testament/question11-non-canonical-books-old-testament.cfm) - [New Testament apocrypha - Wikipedia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Testament_apocrypha) - [Nag Hammadi Library - The Gnosis Archive](http://gnosis.org/naghamm/nhl.html) - [What are some interesting texts that were left out of the Bible? - Reddit](https://www.reddit.com/r/history/comments/6dxzv9/what_are_some_interesting_texts_that_were_left/) - [From a historian's perspective, are there any New Testament books which ought not be Canon? Are there any excluded books which ought to have been Canon? : r/AskHistorians - Reddit](https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/bt6b32/from_a_historians_perspective_are_there_any_new/) - [List of Gnostic texts - Wikipedia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Gnostic_texts) - [The Story Of The Storytellers - The Gnostic Gospels - PBS](https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/article/gnostic-gospels/) - [Formation of the Biblical Canon → New Testament – Study Guide](https://yalebiblestudy.org/courses/formation-of-the-biblical-canon/lessons/new-testament-study-guide/) - [The Biblical Canon - The Gospel Coalition](https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/essay/the-biblical-canon/) - [Biblical canon - Wikipedia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblical_canon) - [A Criteria for the Canon | Graduate School Of Episcopal Studies](https://episcopalschool.teachable.com/courses/215188/lectures/3339191) - [How and when was the canon of the Bible put together](https://www.gotquestions.org/canon-Bible.html) - [What are the Criteria for a Book to be Canonical? - BibleQuestions.info](https://biblequestions.info/2019/08/10/what-are-the-criteria-for-a-book-to-be-canonical/) - [What Criteria Were Used to Recognize Which Books Belonged in the Old Testament? - Blue Letter Bible](https://www.blueletterbible.org/Comm/stewart_don/faq/right-books-in-old-testament/question9-criteria-recognize-old-testament.cfm) - [The Council of Nicaea and Biblical Canon - Phoenix Seminary](https://ps.edu/council-nicaea-biblical-canon/) - [The Councils A Series on the Development of the Bible's Canon: Part 4](http://helpmewithbiblestudy.org/5Bible/TransCanonCouncils.aspx) - [No, Nicaea Didn't Create the Canon - The Gospel Coalition](https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/article/nicaea-canon/) - [The Gospel of Thomas](https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/abstract/document/obo-9780195393361/obo-9780195393361-0047.xml#:~:text=The%20Gospel%20of%20Thomas%20is,his%20death%2C%20or%20his%20resurrection.) - [The Gospel of Thomas: An Overview - The Bart Ehrman Blog](https://ehrmanblog.org/the-gospel-of-thomas-an-overview/) - [Gospel of Thomas | Summary, Gnostic, Meaning, & Facts | Britannica](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Gospel-of-Thomas) - [The Gospel of Thomas: Summary and Why It's Not In the Bible](https://www.bartehrman.com/gospel-of-thomas/) - [The Battle To Authenticate 'The Gospel of Thomas' - Scholarship](https://scholarship.claremont.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=1041&context=lux) - [Gospel of Thomas - Wikipedia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel_of_Thomas) - [Why the gospel of thomas is considered heretical? : r/Catholicism - Reddit](https://www.reddit.com/r/Catholicism/comments/1eqbm1l/why_the_gospel_of_thomas_is_considered_heretical/) - [What's Up with the Gospel of Thomas?](https://library.biblicalarchaeology.org/department/biblical-views-whats-up-with-the-gospel-of-thomas/#:~:text=Unlike%20the%20canonical%20gospels%2C%20it,secondary%2C%20Biblically%20dependent%20and%20inauthentic.) - [Did the Church suppress the Gospel of Thomas because it was afraid of what it contained? - Catholic Answers](https://www.catholic.com/qa/did-the-church-suppress-the-gospel-of-thomas-because-it-was-afraid-of-what-it-contained) - [The Gospel of Mary of Magdala by Karen L. King | EBSCO Research](https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/literature-and-writing/gospel-mary-magdala-karen-l-king) - [Gospel of Mary - Wikipedia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel_of_Mary) - [Primary Sources - The Gospel Of Mary | From Jesus To Christ - PBS](https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/maps/primary/mary.html) - [Gospel of Mary](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel_of_Mary#:~:text=%22The%20Gospel%20of%20Mary%20is,and%20the%20leadership%20of%20women.%22) - [Gospel of Mary Magdalene: Summary, Dating, & Little-Known Facts](https://www.bartehrman.com/gospel-of-mary-magdalene/) - [Interpreting the Lost Gospel of Mary: Feminist Reconstructions and Myth Making - CORE](https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/229421508.pdf) - [A Brief Overview of the Gospel of Judas - Probe Ministries](https://probe.org/a-brief-overview-of-the-gospel-of-judas/) - [The Shocking Secrets of the Gospel of Judas - The Not So Innocents Abroad](https://www.thenotsoinnocentsabroad.com/blog/the-shocking-secrets-of-the-gospel-of-judas) - [Gospel of Judas | Ancient Text, History & Significance - Britannica](https://www.britannica.com/topic/Gospel-of-Judas) - [Gospel of Judas: Examining the Apocryphal Book - Bart Ehrman](https://www.bartehrman.com/gospel-of-judas/) - [Gospel of Judas - Wikipedia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gospel_of_Judas) - [What Should We Think About the Gospel of Judas? - Apologetics](https://www.namb.net/apologetics/resource/what-should-we-think-about-the-gospel-of-judas/) - ['Gospel of Judas' is heresy and unreliable, Union experts say - News Release](https://www.uu.edu/news/release.cfm?ID=1021) - [The Gospel of Judas: Historically Reliable? - Bible Apologetics](http://www.bible-apologetics.com/articles/judasgospel.htm) - [Gnosticism - Wikipedia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnosticism) - [The Gnostic Gospel of Judas](https://www.catholicculture.org/culture/library/view.cfm?recnum=7235#:~:text=The%20striking%20anti%2DSemitism%20of,being%20automatically%20destined%20for%20eternal) - [The Claims of the Gospel of Judas | Catholic Culture](https://www.catholicculture.org/culture/library/view.cfm?recnum=7235) - ['Gospel of Judas' story criticized for 'scholarly malpractice' - Catholic News Agency](https://www.catholicnewsagency.com/news/12909/gospel-of-judas-story-criticized-for-scholarly-malpractice) - [Why was the gospel of Mary Magdalene omitted when creating the first edition of the Christian bible? : r/AcademicBiblical - Reddit](https://www.reddit.com/r/AcademicBiblical/comments/j241x9/why_was_the_gospel_of_mary_magdalene_omitted_when/) - [The Canonical vs. Non-Canonical Gospels: Why Some Books Didn't Make the Cut](https://www.bartehrman.com/canonical-vs-non-canonical-gospels/) - [When and why was the Gospel of Thomas excluded from the Biblical canon? : r/AskHistorians - Reddit](https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/2g146w/when_and_why_was_the_gospel_of_thomas_excluded/) - [Why Are the Gnostic Gospels Left Out of the Bible? - STR.org](https://www.str.org/w/why-are-the-gnostic-gospels-left-out-of-the-bible-) - [Why is gnosticism so widely condemned as heresy? : r/religion - Reddit](https://www.reddit.com/r/religion/comments/rd4rxo/why_is_gnosticism_so_widely_condemned_as_heresy/) - [History of early Christianity | Beliefs, Characteristics, Organization, & Map - Britannica](https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-early-Christianity) - [The Formation of the New Testament Canon - Richard Carrier](https://www.richardcarrier.info/CanonNTSpecialEdit.pdf) - [Reclaiming the power of women in the early Christian Church](https://commons.emich.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1064&context=honors) - [Early Christianity's Challenge to the Status and Roles of Women in the Late Roman Empire - Athabasca University](https://www.athabascau.ca/humanities-and-social-sciences/_documents/robertwalkeressay.pdf) - [Comparison of the books of the Old Testament in various Christian traditions - etimasthe](https://etimasthe.com/2018/08/29/comparison-of-the-books-of-the-old-testament-in-various-christian-traditions/) - [Which Biblical Canon Is Correct? - Behold The Stone](https://beholdthestone.com/archives/15509) - [Do Catholics and Orthodox Have the Same Bible? - Catholic Answers](https://www.catholic.com/qa/do-catholics-and-orthodox-have-the-same-bible) - [The Old Testament in Christian Bibles Chart](https://www.americanbible.org/engage/bible-resources/articles/the-old-testament-in-christian-bibles-chart/) - [Nag Hammadi Archive - Claremont Colleges Digital Library](https://ccdl.claremont.edu/digital/collection/nha) - [Apocrypha - Early Christian Writings](https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/apocrypha.html) - [Noncanonical Literature - The Wesley Center Online](https://wesley.nnu.edu/noncanonical-literature/)