[[Welcome Index]] [[Beginner Bulletin]] [[Heka(Magic)]] [[Myths-Theology]] [[Philosophy-]] [[Society-]] [[Symbolism-OR-Art]] [[Terminology-]] [[-Bibliography]] # A Chronological History of Ancient Egypt: Key Events and Dynastic Developments Ancient Egyptian civilization, flourishing along the fertile banks of the Nile River for over three millennia, represents one of humanity's most enduring and influential cultures. Its history is a testament to remarkable continuity amidst cyclical patterns of centralization, fragmentation, and reunification. The foundational framework for understanding this vast timeline is largely attributed to Manetho, an Egyptian priest from the third century BCE, whose categorization of kings into 30 dynasties remains the standard for historical periodization.1 This report will chronologically dissect the pivotal events and developments that shaped ancient Egypt, from its prehistoric origins to its incorporation into the Roman Empire, exploring the interplay of political structures, administrative innovations, cultural achievements, societal dynamics, and complex foreign relations. | **Period** | **Dynasties** | **Approximate Dates (BCE)** | **Key Characteristics** | | -------------------------- | ----------------- | --------------------------- | ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | | Predynastic Period | Pre-Dynastic | c. 6000 – 3150 | Emergence of agriculture, early settlements, development of social complexity, regional cultures, and the initial stages of unification. | | Early Dynastic Period | 1-2 | c. 3150 – 2686 | Unification of Upper and Lower Egypt, establishment of Memphis, development of early administration and writing, royal burials at Abydos, and early foreign relations. | | Old Kingdom | 3-6 | c. 2686 – 2181 | The "Age of Pyramids," highly centralized government, monumental architecture, sophisticated administration, and expansion of foreign trade. | | First Intermediate Period | 7-10 | c. 2181 – 2040 | Collapse of central authority, rise of provincial governors (nomarchs), regional conflicts, and foreign incursions. | | Middle Kingdom | 11-12 | c. 2040 – 1768 | Reunification under Theban rule, re-establishment of strong central administration, military expansion into Nubia, and advancements in mathematics and census. | | Second Intermediate Period | 13-17 | c. 1768 – 1570 | Political fragmentation, Hyksos invasion and rule in the Delta, introduction of new military technologies, and Theban resistance. | | New Kingdom | 18-20 | c. 1570 – 1070 | Imperial expansion, establishment of an Egyptian empire, Amarna Period religious reforms, Ramesside era conflicts and treaties, and integration of military and state administration. | | Third Intermediate Period | 21-25 | c. 1069 – 664 | Political disunity, rise of priestly power in Upper Egypt, Nubian (Kushite) rule, and Assyrian invasions. | | Late Period | 26-31 | c. 664 – 332 | Saite Renaissance (reunification and cultural revival), Persian conquests, and brief periods of native independence. | | Ptolemaic Period | Ptolemaic Dynasty | c. 332 – 30 | Greek rule following Alexander's conquest, founding of Alexandria, dynastic cults, Greco-Egyptian cultural syncretism, and sophisticated economic administration. | | Roman Period | Roman Rule | c. 30 BCE – 395 CE | Egypt as a Roman province, continuity of Pharaonic traditions in imperial portrayal, ethno-class-based social structure, and Roman monumentalization of Alexandria. | ## I. The Dawn of Civilization: Predynastic and Early Dynastic Periods ### Predynastic Period (c. 6000 – 3150 BCE) The earliest human presence in the Nile Valley dates back before 7000 BCE, marking the initial steps towards the sophisticated civilization that would define ancient Egypt. This era witnessed profound transformations in human settlement and subsistence strategies. Animal domestication, including sheep, goats, cattle, and pigs, was adopted between 7000 and 5000 BCE, transitioning from earlier hunter-gatherer lifestyles. This was followed by the introduction of plant cultivation, notably emmer wheat and barley, around 5000 BCE, which led to the establishment of sedentary farming communities along the Nile's fertile banks. The formation of these interconnected villages necessitated new forms of social interaction, ranging from peaceful exchange to conflict over resources.   Over millennia, the small, independent tribal units gradually amalgamated into larger social and political groupings, laying the groundwork for a unified state. Archaeological investigations at sites such as Hierakonpolis have revealed the emergence of distinct Upper Egyptian kingdoms, which likely competed for regional influence with rivals like Thinis (Abydos) and Naqada. A foundational aspect of later Egyptian culture, the emphasis on the physical body and its preservation after death, is believed to have originated in this period, explaining the practice of burial over cremation.   The culmination of the Predynastic Period was the political and cultural unification of Egypt under a single ruler. Towards the end of the 4th millennium BCE, King Narmer, the last ruler of Dynasty 0, is often identified as Egypt's first true king and the pivotal figure in this unification. The Narmer Palette, a significant artifact discovered at Hierakonpolis, visually records this momentous event. On one side, it depicts King Narmer smiting an enemy, with fallen or fleeing foes below, and on the reverse, the king walks in a procession before decapitated enemies. The palette also features fantastical creatures whose intertwined necks are thought to symbolize the unification of the Two Lands—Upper and Lower Egypt. While such imagery might suggest a literal violent conquest, it is also understood as an ideological expression of the king's role in establishing   _Ma'at_ (cosmic order, balance, and justice) by eliminating disorder. This portrayal signifies the triumph of order over chaos at the very inception of Egyptian civilization, thereby setting a powerful precedent for the divine authority and purpose of subsequent pharaohs.   The identity of the unifier, traditionally known as Menes, has been a subject of scholarly debate, with some identifying him with King Narmer and others with King Aha. The exact date of this event also varies in historical accounts, with possibilities including 3400 BCE, 3110 BCE, or 2850 BCE, though evidence increasingly supports approximately 3110 BCE as the start of recorded history in Egypt. The ongoing scholarly discussion over Menes's identity and whether unification was a single event or a prolonged period of warfare highlights how foundational historical narratives are often shaped to present a clear, legitimizing origin story for the unified state, emphasizing a singular, decisive figure. This process underscores the deliberate construction of early state ideology, where the nuances of historical events are streamlined to serve the needs of political legitimacy.   ### Early Dynastic Period (Dynasties 1-2, c. 3150 – 2686 BCE) The unification of Egypt ushered in the Early Dynastic Period, characterized by the consolidation of unified rule and the establishment of a strong, centralized administration. Menes is traditionally credited with founding a new capital, Ineb-Hedj, later known as Memphis, strategically located at the boundary between the Delta and the Nile Valley. This strategic placement reinforced the concept of the "Two Lands," which became fundamental to Egyptian thought, with the king adopting titles like "King of Upper and Lower Egypt" and wearing the distinctive White and Red Crowns.   The emergence of writing systems was intrinsically linked to the development of the territorial state and its administrative needs. Early traces of organization, such as marks on vessels from the 4th millennium BCE, suggest nascent private management practices. However, the picture changed significantly with the discovery of Tomb U-j at Abydos (Dynasty 0), which contained the earliest known hieroglyphs inscribed on labels. These inscriptions likely indicated the provenance of goods and hinted at the existence of institutions responsible for equipping tombs.   During Dynasty 0 and Dynasty 1, various state institutions produced different types of inscriptions, including ink on pottery, seal impressions, pot marks, and incised stone vessels. So-called "tax annotations" on cylinder vessels from the reigns of Iry-Hor to Den frequently mentioned deliveries of diverse commodities from Upper or Lower Egypt, along with the name of the reigning king. The increasing number of scribes involved in registering these vessels suggests a rapidly growing bureaucratic apparatus necessary for managing the expanding state economy. This direct correlation between the emergence and sophistication of writing and the state's need for complex economic and territorial control demonstrates writing as a fundamental technology for state formation and the exercise of bureaucratic power. It highlights how the state's ability to organize and mobilize resources on a large scale was directly enabled by the development of a systematic written record-keeping system.   Early administrative structures included the royal household and various specialized departments. King Djer founded one of the first _hw.t_-institutions, or estates, known as _hw.t pj-hr.w-msn.w_, which managed textile production and oil imports, likely located in the Delta. Each subsequent king established royal domains (   _shn-3h_) to support their mortuary cult and royal household, with these domains often subdivided into specialized units. The long-term survival of these domains, some lasting until Dynasty 4, indicates significant state investment in agricultural production and resource management.   The earliest forms of a treasury, known as _pr-hd_ (White House) or _pr-dšr_ (Red House), appeared during Den's reign, possibly as separate northern and southern departments responsible for administering deliveries from estates. The   _pr.wj hd_ is specifically mentioned during the reign of Sekhemkhet. The   _js-df_ (food department) is first attested under Ninetjer, appearing as a central authority for tax collection, with personnel including scribes and royal officials. The existence of a central archive is attested from Dynasty 2, and juridical competences are first documented with the title   _wd-mdw.w pr.w nzw_ during Dynasty 3.   The organization of Upper and Lower Egypt into distinct nomes (provinces) likely originated during Den's reign, marking the earliest indications of territorial unity and a more formalized provincial administration. Control over desert regions, vital for raw materials and hunting, was managed by officials with titles like   _'d-mr smj.t_ or _h3s.t_, as evidenced by rock inscriptions from Sinai expeditions under Sekhemkhet and Zanakht. The position of vizier is securely alluded to during Qa'a's reign, with Menka bearing the same title in Dynasty 2, suggesting the early establishment of this high administrative office. | **Role/Institution** | **Key Title(s)** | **Primary Function(s)** | **Period of Attestation** | | ----------------------------- | --------------------------- | ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ | --------------------------------------------------- | | **Royal Household** | **hw.t, shn-3h, pr-nzwt** | **Management of royal estates, textile/oil production, support for royal household and mortuary cult** | **Dynasty 1 (Djer), until Dynasty 4 (Netjerikhet)** | | **Treasury** | **pr-hd, pr-dšr, pr.wj hd** | **Revenue collection, disbursement, manufacturing, storage, provisioning, redistribution** | **Dynasty 1 (Den), until Dynasty 3 (Sekhemkhet)** | | **Food Department** | **js-df** | **Central provisioning, tax collection** | **Dynasty 2 (Ninetjer)** | | **Provincial Administration** | **'d-mr, hq3** | **Organization of Upper/Lower Egypt into nomes, local control** | **End of Dynasty 1 (Den)** | | **Desert Administration** | **'d-mr smj.t, h3s.t** | **Control of desert regions, raw material procurement (hunting, stones)** | **End of Dynasty 1 (Merka), early Dynasty 3** | | **Vizierate** | **t3yty s3b t3ty** | **Highest civilian bureaucrat, link between king and government** | **Dynasty 1 (Qa'a), Dynasty 2 (Menka)** | | **Archives** | **-** | **Storage of administrative documents** | **Beginning of Dynasty 2** | | **Juridical Functions** | **wd-mdw.w pr.w nzw** | **Execution of royal legal orders** | **Dynasty 3** | Royal burials at Abydos, particularly the Umm el Qa'ab necropolis, provide significant insights into early dynastic funerary practices. All kings of Dynasty 1 (starting c. 2950 BCE) and the last two kings of Dynasty 2 (ending c. 2650 BCE) were buried here in large, lavishly equipped tombs, which served as precursors to later pyramid complexes. A notable and somewhat grisly aspect of these early royal funerals was the interment of royal kin, courtiers, and officials in small subsidiary graves surrounding each royal tomb. These individuals were likely killed to serve their lord in the afterlife, a practice first appearing at King Aha's tomb. However, this practice gradually dwindled by the end of Dynasty 1, eventually being replaced by magical substitutes such as figurines and wall paintings. This evolution in funerary ideology, moving from literal human sacrifice to symbolic representation, suggests a developing state that increasingly asserted its control through more abstract and ritualized means, reflecting a maturing societal structure.   Early foreign relations were dynamic and primarily driven by economic interests. Relations with the A-Group Nubian kingdom in northern Nubia were initially friendly, with trade occurring at Elephantine. However, by the end of Dynasty 1, Egyptian expansion into Lower Nubia led to conflict, resulting in the disappearance of the A-Group culture by 2800 BCE and the depopulation of Lower Nubia for centuries. Concurrently, Egyptians established colonies in the southern Levant, such as Tell es-Sakan, to control eastern trade routes. These outposts, some fortified, facilitated the flow of goods like wine, grain, copper, and oils into Egypt. However, by the middle of Dynasty 1, these land-based colonial outposts were abandoned as the land route across the Sinai became less relevant, giving way to Byblos (modern Lebanon) as Egypt's most important trading partner in the Near East, supplying crucial timber and other prestige goods. This rapid shift in foreign policy, from initial friendly trade to aggressive expansion and then a reorientation of trade routes, demonstrates that early Egyptian foreign policy was not static but highly adaptive, driven by the state's evolving economic interests and its assertion of power to secure direct access to vital resources.   ## II. The Age of Pyramids and Provincial Power: Old Kingdom and First Intermediate Period ### Old Kingdom (Dynasties 3-6, c. 2686 – 2181 BCE) The Old Kingdom is renowned as the "Age of Pyramids," a period that saw the flourishing of ancient Egyptian civilization into a thriving nation under a single, powerful administration. The monumental architectural achievements of this era stand as enduring testaments to the centralized power and organizational capabilities of the state.   The period began with King Djoser (Dynasty 3), who commissioned the world's first pyramid, the Step Pyramid at Saqqara. This architectural marvel, conceived as a series of superimposed mastabas, is largely attributed to his vizier and architect, Imhotep. Imhotep's genius, encompassing architecture, medicine, magic, and scribal lore, marked a pivotal moment where diverse intellectual and practical talents converged to drive monumental innovation. His later deification underscores the profound and lasting impact of his contributions on Egyptian culture and intellectual life. The architectural prowess of the Old Kingdom reached its zenith in Dynasty 4 with the construction of the Great Pyramid of Khufu at Giza (c. 2650 BCE).1 These massive structures, along with others at Dahshur and Saqqara, were primarily built as tombs for pharaohs and other elites.3 The interiors were often adorned with sculptures, statues, and paintings, showcasing the artistic sophistication of the period.5 Construction relied on massive mud bricks, limestone, and granite blocks, quarried locally or transported from distant sites like Tura (for white limestone) and Upper Egypt (for red granite).5 Sophisticated engineering techniques, including ramps, levers, and sleds, were employed to precisely cut and fit these colossal blocks without mortar.5 The development of the arch during Dynasty 4 also marked a significant architectural advancement.6 The sheer scale, precision, and enduring presence of these pyramids are not merely architectural feats; they are direct manifestations of the pharaoh's absolute authority, the state's highly centralized administration, and its unparalleled capacity to mobilize vast human and material resources. These monuments served as tangible symbols of divine kingship and the state's comprehensive control over the entire country.3 The centralized administrative structure of the Old Kingdom was intricate and highly organized, designed to support the pharaoh's absolute rule.4 The king, considered the divine intermediary between gods and people, officially owned all land and derived state revenue through taxation.7 The pharaoh served as the ultimate head of state, responsible for maintaining Ma'at and overseeing the entire governmental and economic framework.1 The vizier (tjaty) emerged as the highest civilian bureaucrat, acting as the crucial link between the pharaoh and the government, responsible for transmitting royal commands and implementing policies.1 Initially, viziers were often members of the royal family (Dynasty 4), but by the end of Dynasty 4, state positions began to open to non-royal officials as the state grew too large for a select few.1 By Dynasty 5, the vizierate became more "socially obliged," involving a broader group of non-royal officials, and prestigious offices gradually became hereditary.1 This evolution in the vizierate, from a royal prerogative to a more accessible and eventually hereditary office, highlights a subtle but significant shift in the distribution of power within the centralized system. The administration included key departments responsible for resource management. Grain, being central to the Egyptian economy, was managed through a system of granaries (šnw.t), with overseers holding high administrative positions.1 The treasury ( pr-hd or pr-dšr), attested since Den's reign, was a versatile department responsible for revenue collection, manufacturing, storage, and redistribution of products for the royal household.1 Sub-departments like pr-hry-wdb (redistribution of offerings) and is-df3 (provisioning depot) further illustrate the complexity of this system.1 While the Old Kingdom is often characterized by its extreme centralization, the evidence suggests a more nuanced reality. The state aimed for "uniformity" in its administrative methods rather than rigid micromanagement, a pragmatic approach given the vastness of the territory.1 The increasing hereditary nature of provincial offices and the growing power of regional governors (nomarchs) towards the end of the Old Kingdom indicate a tension between central authority and local autonomy.1 This dynamic, where local leaders gained significant control over their nomes and cults, foreshadowed the political fragmentation that would define the subsequent First Intermediate Period.1 The very success of a highly centralized system, if not accompanied by adaptable mechanisms for power transfer and local integration, could contribute to its eventual weakening. Foreign relations during the Old Kingdom were primarily driven by the pragmatic need to acquire vital resources. Mining operations for turquoise and copper were established in southern Sinai, protected by fortresses.1 Byblos in the northern Levant remained a crucial trading partner, supplying timber.1 In Nubia, the town of Buhen was established near the Second Cataract to facilitate gold trade, and Elephantine continued to serve as a key border town.1 Expeditions extended further south to the land of Yam, seeking luxury goods like panther skins, as meticulously recorded by figures like Harkhuf, a governor of Aswan.1 Military campaigns, such as those led by the noble Weni (Dynasty 6) against Asiatic "sand-dwellers" in the southern Levant, aimed to secure Egyptian shipping routes and natural harbors, often involving extensive destruction and taking of captives.1 These actions, whether through trade or military force, highlight a foreign policy focused on securing the economic prosperity and resource needs of the centralized state, rather than purely territorial expansion. Funerary practices continued to evolve, becoming increasingly elaborate. Intentional mummification of royalty and elites began around 2600 BCE (Dynasties 4-5) and persisted for over two millennia.10 Key rituals included the "Opening of the Mouth Ceremony," performed to enable the deceased to function in the afterlife, and the symbolic weighing of the heart against the feather of Ma'at for judgment.10 Tombs were equipped with a variety of grave goods, and significantly, figurines and wall paintings began to replace the earlier practice of human sacrifice, reflecting a shift towards more symbolic representations of service in the afterlife.2 The emergence of elaborate provincial elite tombs and cemeteries, such as Qubbet el-Hawa in Aswan (c. 2300 BCE), marked a notable decentralization of funerary practices that had previously been concentrated around the royal court.1 These rock-cut tombs, with their unique text and image programs, demonstrate the growing power and self-assertion of regional elites (nomarchs) who invested substantial resources to establish their own local identities and ensure their afterlife, independent of direct royal burial proximity.1 This development illustrates how changes in funerary architecture and practices can mirror broader shifts in political power and social structure. | **Monument Name** | **Dynasty** | **Approximate Date (BCE)** | **Key Features** | **Significance** | | -------------------------------------- | ----------- | -------------------------- | ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ | | **Step Pyramid of Djoser** | **3** | **c. 2667-2648** | **World's first pyramid, stepped structure, large complex with courts and various tombs, underground burial chambers.** | **Marks the beginning of monumental stone architecture; attributed to Imhotep's genius; prototype for later pyramids.** | | **Great Pyramid of Khufu** | **4** | **c. 2580-2560** | **Largest pyramid, smooth-sided limestone casing (mostly removed), precise astronomical alignment, complex interior chambers.** | **Pinnacle of pyramid construction; symbol of absolute pharaonic power and centralized state's ability to mobilize vast resources.** | | **Pyramids of Giza, Dahshur, Saqqara** | **4-6** | **c. 2613-2181** | **Massive stone blocks, post-and-lintel construction, interior decorated with sculptures and paintings.** | **Showcase advanced engineering and architectural design; reflect the wealth and organizational capacity of the Old Kingdom state.** | ### First Intermediate Period (Dynasties 7-10, c. 2181 – 2040 BCE) The First Intermediate Period represents a phase of significant political disunity and social upheaval that followed the collapse of the Old Kingdom's centralized monarchical system.1 The extremely long reign of King Pepi II (Dynasty 6) is often cited as a contributing factor, leading to dynastic succession issues and court chaos that made the reconstruction of subsequent short-lived reigns (Dynasties 7-8) challenging.1 This prolonged period of stability under a single ruler paradoxically created vulnerabilities, as it allowed regional powers to consolidate and mechanisms for smooth power transfer to weaken. A defining characteristic of this era was the dramatic growth of provincial power. Nomarchs, who were regional governors, began to pass their powerful offices to family members, establishing hereditary succession lines across the country.1 This marked a significant departure from earlier practices where such positions were more directly controlled by the central court. These nomarchs increasingly chose to be buried in their own nomes rather than near the royal pyramid, further signifying their growing independence and the establishment of local power centers.1 This proliferation of local authority effectively weakened the central government, leading to a fragmented state where individual nomes and even towns acted independently, sometimes pledging allegiance to nomarchs from other areas.1 Egypt became divided into warring princedoms, with northern nomes generally loyal to the royal family in Herakleopolis, while independent southern nomes fiercely competed for territory and power.1 This internal conflict was exacerbated by foreign incursions. Middle Kingdom texts allude to "foreign birds" breeding in the Delta and Asiatics seizing fortresses, suggesting a foreign presence that may have contributed to instability.1 The violent destruction of the town of Mendes in the north-east Delta, possibly due to an Asiatic invasion, further underscores the period's turmoil.1 These foreign movements might have been driven by a severe drought in the Near East (2250-2050 BCE), forcing populations to migrate in search of resources.1 Amidst this fragmentation, new unifying forces began to emerge from the south. The Theban nomarchs, starting with Intef the Great, initiated a process of extending their control northward.1 Intef I expanded Theban territory by closing desert routes and seizing neighboring nomes like Coptos, Dendera, and Diospolis Parva.1 His successor, Intef II, ruled for approximately fifty years, claiming the title of king of Upper and Lower Egypt and pushing the Theban border beyond Abydos.1 He also implemented administrative reforms, reorganizing the nomes under his control by assigning royally appointed managers instead of individual nomarchs, and encouraging important men to be buried near the king, signaling a re-centralization of power and loyalty.1 The nomarchs of Asyut, however, remained loyal to the Herakleopolitan kings, actively resisting the Theban advance and engaging in military conflicts.1 The eventual reunification of Egypt under Montuhotep II, a Theban prince, marked the end of this chaotic period and the beginning of the Middle Kingdom.1 ## III. Reunification and Expansion: Middle Kingdom and Second Intermediate Period ### Middle Kingdom (Dynasties 11-12, c. 2040 – 1768 BCE) The Middle Kingdom began with the reunification of Egypt under Montuhotep II, a Theban prince, who led his forces to victory over the Herakleopolitans.1 His changing Horus Names reflected the progression of his unification efforts, culminating in the establishment of the 11th Dynasty and a new era of centralized rule.1 Upon reunification, Montuhotep II strategically stripped nomarchs of their offices but allowed their families to retain key regional positions, demonstrating a pragmatic approach to re-establishing central authority while acknowledging local power structures.1 The 12th Dynasty, founded by King Amenemhat I, further solidified the re-centralization of power. Amenemhat I established a new capital at Ithettawy, near Fayum, and systematically rebuilt a strong central administration.1 This period saw significant efforts to resolve land disputes and promote agricultural prosperity, laying the economic groundwork for the kingdom's stability.1 The Middle Kingdom witnessed a renewed focus on military expansion and the strategic control of resources. King Amenemhat I launched multiple military expeditions into Nubia, devastating Lower Nubian populations.1 His successor, Senwosret I, continued this policy, exploiting the region's rich mineral wealth, including diorite, amethyst, and gold, and erecting inscriptions to demand submission from Nubian populations.1 King Senwosret III further intensified Egyptian control, launching four campaigns into Nubia, establishing the southern border at Semna, and plundering Nubian resources.1 A significant infrastructural development was his order to cut a channel around the First Cataract, facilitating year-round trade and military movement, which highlights a sophisticated understanding of logistics and resource management to secure long-term economic and military advantage.1 To protect these interests, a series of formidable mud-brick fortresses were constructed between Aswan and the Second Cataract, housing soldiers and serving as administrative and logistical hubs.1 Missions to Punt, a distant source of luxury goods like myrrh and ebony, also resumed during this period, launched from the Red Sea port of Mersa Gawasis.1 The Middle Kingdom also saw notable advancements in administrative and intellectual spheres, particularly in mathematics and census activities. The earliest extant mathematical texts, such as the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus and the Moscow Mathematical Papyrus, originated from this period.1 These texts, believed to be educational tools for future scribes, covered practical applications of mathematics, including arithmetic, fractions, and calculations related to granary contents, ration distribution, and architectural problems.1 Concurrently, census activities became more formalized, as evidenced by the wpwt-lists found in the Lahun papyri.1 These lists, often interpreted as the first Pharaonic census activities, meticulously recorded household members, their occupations, age, and gender, providing a snapshot of bureaucratic categorization practices.1 The development of these sophisticated mathematical tools and census methods underscores the Middle Kingdom's commitment to robust bureaucratic systems. These advancements were fundamental for efficient resource allocation, labor management, and taxation, reflecting a foundational shift towards data-driven governance essential for supporting a re-centralized state. The state's ability to effectively manage its population and resources, as demonstrated by these practices, was significantly enhanced by these bureaucratic innovations. Funerary practices continued to evolve, with new tomb contents and rituals reflecting changing beliefs and social dynamics. | **Period** | **Key Developments in Funerary Practices** | **Notable Tomb Types/Features** | **Significance** | | ------------------ | -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ | | **Old Kingdom** | **Intentional mummification of royalty and elites begins; human sacrifices replaced by symbolic substitutes.** | **Pyramids (Djoser's Step Pyramid, Giza Pyramids), mastabas, elaborate rock-cut tombs (e.g., Qubbet el-Hawa).** | **Shift from literal to symbolic service in afterlife; monumental expression of divine kingship and centralized power; emergence of provincial elite tombs reflecting local power.** | | **Middle Kingdom** | **Continued mummification and elaborate rituals; new tomb contents for afterlife provisions.** | **Rock-cut tombs with detailed scenes of daily life; development of coffins and sarcophagi.** | **Focus on personal afterlife journey; reflection of a more stable, yet still hierarchical, society; emphasis on individual provisioning for eternity.** | ### Second Intermediate Period (Dynasties 13-17, c. 1768 – 1570 BCE) The Middle Kingdom's stability eventually waned, leading to the Second Intermediate Period, a phase of significant political fragmentation and foreign domination. This era began with the weakening of the 13th Dynasty's central government, which allowed foreign powers to assert control.11 Asiatic immigrants, primarily Semitic peoples known as the Hyksos, rose to prominence in the eastern Nile Delta, establishing their capital at Avaris.1 The Hyksos eventually controlled much of northern Egypt, with their rule at times extending as far south as Hermopolis.12 This period marked a stark departure from the preceding political unity, as Egypt became a fragmented state with multiple competing power centers, including various native Egyptian dynasties (notably Dynasty 17) ruling the south from Thebes.11 Despite their foreign origins, the Hyksos adopted many aspects of Egyptian culture, including language, governance, and religious practices, even incorporating the Egyptian god Set into their pantheon.12 However, their most profound impact was in the realm of military innovation. The Hyksos introduced the horse and chariot, bronze weaponry, scale armor, composite bows, and new types of daggers and scimitars to Egypt.11 These advancements fundamentally modernized Egypt's military capabilities. The Hyksos invasion, while disrupting political unity and leading to foreign rule, inadvertently served as a catalyst for military modernization. The new technologies and strategies introduced by the Hyksos proved pivotal in the subsequent Egyptian struggle to reclaim their territory, demonstrating how external pressures and foreign occupation can drive internal innovation and long-term strategic transformation within a civilization.11 The presence of the Hyksos in the north spurred a war of liberation initiated by a Theban family in the south.1 Seqenenre and Kamose were prominent figures in this struggle against the Hyksos.1 The final victory was achieved by Ahmose, who successfully expelled the Hyksos from Egypt and pursued them into Palestine, marking the end of the Second Intermediate Period and the beginning of the New Kingdom.1 ## IV. Imperial Grandeur and Decline: New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period ### New Kingdom (Dynasties 18-20, c. 1570 – 1070 BCE) The New Kingdom represents the zenith of ancient Egypt's political power and imperial expansion, following the successful expulsion of the Hyksos. This era was characterized by the establishment of a vast Egyptian empire, extending its boundaries deep into Western Asia and Nubia. The foundation of the empire began with Ahmose I (Dynasty 18), who successfully expelled the Hyksos and reunited the Two Lands.1 He then re-established firm control over Nubia, making Buhen an administrative center and initiating a new phase of Egyptian temple construction to assert rule and manage resources.1 Tuthmosis I continued this expansion, crushing Nubian rebellions, likely sacking the Kushite capital of Kerma, and extending Egypt's southern border to the Fourth Cataract.1 He also launched the first major Levantine campaign, reaching the Euphrates and setting the blueprint for New Kingdom expansionism.1 Hatshepsut, while ruling as queen regent and then pharaoh, faced continued rebellions in Nubia and notably reopened trade with the distant land of Punt.1 The empire reached its peak under Tuthmosis III, who launched almost yearly campaigns in the Levant, aiming to reach the Euphrates. His first major campaign culminated in the Battle of Megiddo, a strategic victory that solidified Egyptian dominance.1 Tuthmosis III established a sophisticated system of control over the conquered Levantine territories, relying on loyal vassal kings, taxation, and the establishment of Egyptian garrisons in key cities like Tyre, Byblos, and Beth Shean.1 Nubia was firmly integrated into the empire, managed by a viceroy (King's Son of Kush) and divided into two administrative zones, with a policy of "Egyptianization" pursued through the construction of temple towns.1 The aggressive expansion and establishment of this empire were not merely about territorial gain; they were crucial for legitimizing the newly reunified state after the Hyksos expulsion. The pharaohs' emphasis on warrior skills and military victories, as seen in the campaigns of Tuthmosis III and the gruesome executions by Amenhotep II, served as powerful propaganda, reinforcing the king's role as the divine guarantor of order and prosperity and solidifying the new dynasty's authority. This demonstrated a clear understanding that military prowess was a key component of both state stability and the projection of royal image. The Amarna Period under Akhenaten (initially Amenhotep IV, c. 1353-1336 BCE) marked a significant, albeit temporary, disruption to the empire's trajectory. Akhenaten shifted Egypt's state religion to the Aten (sun disc) and moved the capital to Tell el-Amarna, promoting an exclusive cult that led to the closure of other temples and the proscription of traditional gods' names.1 While often portrayed as a pacifist, he did wage a campaign in Nubia. However, his preoccupation with religious reform led to a decline in Egyptian control over Syria and Palestine, resulting in territorial losses to the expanding Hittite Empire.1 The Amarna Letters, diplomatic correspondence from this period, provide detailed insights into the complex foreign relations and the weakening of Egyptian influence.1 Akhenaten's radical attempt at ideological centralization, while internally focused, inadvertently led to geopolitical vulnerability and territorial losses in the Levant. This illustrates how a ruler's singular ideological pursuit, if not balanced with pragmatic foreign policy and attention to external threats, can destabilize a vast empire, highlighting the delicate balance between internal reform and external power projection. The Ramesside Era (Dynasties 19-20, c. 1292-1070 BCE) saw efforts to restore Egypt's imperial standing. Ramesses II (Dynasty 19) reigned for sixty-seven years, dedicating much of his early rule to military endeavors and massive building projects.1 His famous Battle of Qadesh (c. 1274 BCE) against the Hittites, though heavily publicized as a great victory, was likely a draw but served to legitimize his new dynasty.1 A peace treaty with the Hittites (c. 1258 BCE) eventually ended years of hostility, solidified by diplomatic marriages.1 Ramesses II also built Pi-Ramesses, a new capital in the north-eastern Delta, serving as a military base and cultural melting pot.1 Ramesses III (Dynasty 20) faced severe challenges, fighting off two major Libyan invasions and one by the "Sea Peoples," conflicts depicted in his mortuary temple at Medinet Habu.1 The New Kingdom military was deeply integrated into the state administration, blurring the lines between civilian and military bureaucracy.1 High-ranking military officers often transitioned between military and civilian duties, holding positions within the pharaoh's household and other state departments.1 This professionalization and bureaucratization of the military, with fluid career paths, initially strengthened the state. However, the increasing concentration of military men in state positions and the documented abuse of authority by army members against the populace suggest a shift in the balance of power that could, in the long term, contribute to internal instability and the decline of central royal authority, as observed in the later Ramesside period.1 Royal decrees, such as Haremhab's and Sety I's Nauri Decree, attempted to curb these abuses, indicating a recognition of this growing problem.1 Institutional agriculture played a dominant role in the New Kingdom economy, with temples and Crown institutions managing vast tracts of land.1 The Great Harris Papyrus (Ramesses III/IV) details extensive land allocations to temples, particularly the king's mortuary temple at Thebes, indicating their integral role in the state and their command over significant resources and labor.1 The Wilbour Papyrus (Ramesses V) further illustrates this, detailing land measurement and assessment of smallholdings and larger institutional holdings in Middle Egypt, with major temples being the largest landholders.1 Land grants were also awarded to military veterans, such as Ahmose son of Abana, as "favours" from the king for their service.1 These grants implied a form of private landholding, guaranteeing cultivation rights and harvest, provided taxes were paid. However, the state retained ultimate ownership (usufruct principle), highlighting the pharaoh's enduring authority over resources even when delegated.1 This system of land tenure served as a strategic tool to reward loyalty, integrate the military into the agricultural economy, and ensure political and economic stability. ### Second Intermediate Period (Dynasties 13-17, c. 1768 – 1570 BCE) The Middle Kingdom's stability eventually waned, leading to the Second Intermediate Period, a phase of significant political fragmentation and foreign domination. This era began with the weakening of the 13th Dynasty's central government, which allowed foreign powers to assert control.11 Asiatic immigrants, primarily Semitic peoples known as the Hyksos, rose to prominence in the eastern Nile Delta, establishing their capital at Avaris.1 The Hyksos eventually controlled much of northern Egypt, with their rule at times extending as far south as Hermopolis.12 This period marked a stark departure from the preceding political unity, as Egypt became a fragmented state with multiple competing power centers, including various native Egyptian dynasties (notably Dynasty 17) ruling the south from Thebes.11 Despite their foreign origins, the Hyksos adopted many aspects of Egyptian culture, including language, governance, and religious practices, even incorporating the Egyptian god Set into their pantheon.12 However, their most profound impact was in the realm of military innovation. The Hyksos introduced the horse and chariot, bronze weaponry, scale armor, composite bows, and new types of daggers and scimitars to Egypt.11 These advancements fundamentally modernized Egypt's military capabilities. The Hyksos invasion, while disrupting political unity and leading to foreign rule, inadvertently served as a catalyst for military modernization. The new technologies and strategies introduced by the Hyksos proved pivotal in the subsequent Egyptian struggle to reclaim their territory, demonstrating how external pressures and foreign occupation can drive internal innovation and long-term strategic transformation within a civilization.11 The presence of the Hyksos in the north spurred a war of liberation initiated by a Theban family in the south.1 Seqenenre and Kamose were prominent figures in this struggle against the Hyksos.1 The final victory was achieved by Ahmose, who successfully expelled the Hyksos from Egypt and pursued them into Palestine, marking the end of the Second Intermediate Period and the beginning of the New Kingdom.1 ## IV. Imperial Grandeur and Decline: New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period ### New Kingdom (Dynasties 18-20, c. 1570 – 1070 BCE) The New Kingdom represents the zenith of ancient Egypt's political power and imperial expansion, following the successful expulsion of the Hyksos. This era was characterized by the establishment of a vast Egyptian empire, extending its boundaries deep into Western Asia and Nubia. The foundation of the empire began with Ahmose I (Dynasty 18), who successfully expelled the Hyksos and reunited the Two Lands.1 He then re-established firm control over Nubia, making Buhen an administrative center and initiating a new phase of Egyptian temple construction to assert rule and manage resources.1 Tuthmosis I continued this expansion, crushing Nubian rebellions, likely sacking the Kushite capital of Kerma, and extending Egypt's southern border to the Fourth Cataract.1 He also launched the first major Levantine campaign, reaching the Euphrates and setting the blueprint for New Kingdom expansionism.1 Hatshepsut, while ruling as queen regent and then pharaoh, faced continued rebellions in Nubia and notably reopened trade with the distant land of Punt.1 The empire reached its peak under Tuthmosis III, who launched almost yearly campaigns in the Levant, aiming to reach the Euphrates. His first major campaign culminated in the Battle of Megiddo, a strategic victory that solidified Egyptian dominance.1 Tuthmosis III established a sophisticated system of control over the conquered Levantine territories, relying on loyal vassal kings, taxation, and the establishment of Egyptian garrisons in key cities like Tyre, Byblos, and Beth Shean.1 Nubia was firmly integrated into the empire, managed by a viceroy (King's Son of Kush) and divided into two administrative zones, with a policy of "Egyptianization" pursued through the construction of temple towns.1 The aggressive expansion and establishment of this empire were not merely about territorial gain; they were crucial for legitimizing the newly reunified state after the Hyksos expulsion. The pharaohs' emphasis on warrior skills and military victories, as seen in the campaigns of Tuthmosis III and the gruesome executions by Amenhotep II, served as powerful propaganda, reinforcing the king's role as the divine guarantor of order and prosperity and solidifying the new dynasty's authority. This demonstrated a clear understanding that military prowess was a key component of both state stability and the projection of royal image. The Amarna Period under Akhenaten (initially Amenhotep IV, c. 1353-1336 BCE) marked a significant, albeit temporary, disruption to the empire's trajectory. Akhenaten shifted Egypt's state religion to the Aten (sun disc) and moved the capital to Tell el-Amarna, promoting an exclusive cult that led to the closure of other temples and the proscription of traditional gods' names.1 While often portrayed as a pacifist, he did wage a campaign in Nubia. However, his preoccupation with religious reform led to a decline in Egyptian control over Syria and Palestine, resulting in territorial losses to the expanding Hittite Empire.1 The Amarna Letters, diplomatic correspondence from this period, provide detailed insights into the complex foreign relations and the weakening of Egyptian influence.1 Akhenaten's radical attempt at ideological centralization, while internally focused, inadvertently led to geopolitical vulnerability and territorial losses in the Levant. This illustrates how a ruler's singular ideological pursuit, if not balanced with pragmatic foreign policy and attention to external threats, can destabilize a vast empire, highlighting the delicate balance between internal reform and external power projection. The Ramesside Era (Dynasties 19-20, c. 1292-1070 BCE) saw efforts to restore Egypt's imperial standing. Ramesses II (Dynasty 19) reigned for sixty-seven years, dedicating much of his early rule to military endeavors and massive building projects.1 His famous Battle of Qadesh (c. 1274 BCE) against the Hittites, though heavily publicized as a great victory, was likely a draw but served to legitimize his new dynasty.1 A peace treaty with the Hittites (c. 1258 BCE) eventually ended years of hostility, solidified by diplomatic marriages.1 Ramesses II also built Pi-Ramesses, a new capital in the north-eastern Delta, serving as a military base and cultural melting pot.1 Ramesses III (Dynasty 20) faced severe challenges, fighting off two major Libyan invasions and one by the "Sea Peoples," conflicts depicted in his mortuary temple at Medinet Habu.1 The New Kingdom military was deeply integrated into the state administration, blurring the lines between civilian and military bureaucracy.1 High-ranking military officers often transitioned between military and civilian duties, holding positions within the pharaoh's household and other state departments.1 This professionalization and bureaucratization of the military, with fluid career paths, initially strengthened the state. However, the increasing concentration of military men in state positions and the documented abuse of authority by army members against the populace suggest a shift in the balance of power that could, in the long term, contribute to internal instability and the decline of central royal authority, as observed in the later Ramesside period.1 Royal decrees, such as Haremhab's and Sety I's Nauri Decree, attempted to curb these abuses, indicating a recognition of this growing problem.1 Institutional agriculture played a dominant role in the New Kingdom economy, with temples and Crown institutions managing vast tracts of land.1 The Great Harris Papyrus (Ramesses III/IV) details extensive land allocations to temples, particularly the king's mortuary temple at Thebes, indicating their integral role in the state and their command over significant resources and labor.1 The Wilbour Papyrus (Ramesses V) further illustrates this, detailing land measurement and assessment of smallholdings and larger institutional holdings in Middle Egypt, with major temples being the largest landholders.1 Land grants were also awarded to military veterans, such as Ahmose son of Abana, as "favours" from the king for their service.1 These grants implied a form of private landholding, guaranteeing cultivation rights and harvest, provided taxes were paid. However, the state retained ultimate ownership (usufruct principle), highlighting the pharaoh's enduring authority over resources even when delegated.1 This system of land tenure served as a strategic tool to reward loyalty, integrate the military into the agricultural economy, and ensure political and economic stability.** ### Third Intermediate Period (Dynasties 21-25, c. 1069 – 664 BCE) The Third Intermediate Period followed the decline of the New Kingdom's centralized power, marking an era of significant political disunity and vulnerability to foreign influence.13 The fracturing of kingship was evident as Upper Egypt effectively came under the rule of the High Priests of Amun, whose power and influence continued to grow significantly.13 This rise of the priesthood to de facto rulers in Upper Egypt represented a profound shift in the balance of power, where religious authority effectively eclipsed royal power. This demonstrates that in periods of central weakness, established institutions like the priesthood, with their vast wealth and extensive networks, could emerge as formidable political actors, contributing to the fragmentation of the state.1 Concurrently, various dynasties emerged in the north, ruling from the Nile Delta, such as the 21st Dynasty from Tanis.13 This period was characterized by chronic instability and civil conflict, leaving Egypt politically less isolated but vulnerable to external powers.13 The period saw the rise of the Nubian (Kushite) kingdom. King Piye established Dynasty 25, extending his kingdom's influence into Thebes and eventually defeating a coalition of native Egyptian rulers.13 However, this period of Nubian rule was marked by constant conflict with the expanding Neo-Assyrian Empire.13 The Assyrians, realizing the strategic importance of controlling Lower Egypt, launched invasions, eventually driving out the Kushite rulers and sacking major cities like Thebes and Memphis in 664 BCE.13 The Assyrian advantage in iron weaponry, due to their greater supply of timber and thus charcoal for iron-smelting compared to Egypt's chronic shortage, highlights a critical technological disparity that contributed to Egypt's subjugation.14 This illustrates how Egypt's internal political fragmentation, coupled with external technological and resource disadvantages, exacerbated its vulnerability and ultimately led to foreign domination. ## V. Resurgence and Foreign Domination: Late Period, Ptolemaic, and Roman Periods ### Late Period (Dynasties 26-31, c. 664 – 332 BCE) The Late Period began with the Saite Renaissance, a significant era of resurgence and reunification for Egypt. The 26th Dynasty (664-525 BCE) was founded by Psamtek I, who inherited the throne of the Kingdom of the West in the Delta and embarked on a campaign to consolidate power and reunify the entire country.1 Psamtek I strategically strengthened his economic base by establishing new trade relations, particularly with the Aegeans and Phoenicians, shifting from traditional land routes to more lucrative Mediterranean maritime routes.1 He secured military support from Gyges, King of Lydia, and recruited Ionian and Carian mercenaries, which proved instrumental in defeating rival Delta rulers and regaining his throne.1 By his ninth regnal year (656 BCE), Psamtek I achieved a major political success by having his eldest daughter, Nitiqret, adopted as heir to the powerful position of God's Wife of Amun in Thebes, thereby returning the Thebaid to central royal authority.1 Subsequent Saite rulers continued to navigate a complex geopolitical landscape. Nekau II (610-595 BCE) campaigned in the Levant, notably defeating Josiah of Judah in 609 BCE, but suffered a decisive defeat by the Babylonians under Nebuchadnezzar at Carchemish in 605 BCE, leading to the loss of Egyptian dependencies in Syria-Palestine.1 He also initiated a Red Sea Canal project and sent Phoenician sailors on a three-year voyage to circumnavigate Africa.1 Psamtek II (595-589 BCE) led a successful Nubian campaign (c. 592 BCE) and an expedition to Khor (Palestine) to reassert Egyptian claims, also undertaking a damnatio memoriae against Kushite monuments.1 Haaibra (Apries) (589-570 BCE) faced military setbacks against Babylon and a civil war after a defeat in Cyrene, leading to his overthrow by General Ahmose.1 The reign of Ahmose II (Amasis) (570-526 BCE) marked a period of relative peace and prosperity. He maintained a strong military and navy, seized Cyprus, and forged numerous foreign alliances with powers like Cyrene, Lydia, and Sparta to resist Persian ambitions.1 He actively encouraged Greek commercial activity at Naukratis, fostering a new phase of commercial expansion, and relocated Greek mercenaries to Memphis for greater control.1 Ahmose II also undertook extensive building projects and implemented internal reforms to improve economic management and administrative structures.1 The Saite Dynasty's foreign policy, characterized by strategic alliances and the encouragement of Greek commerce, demonstrates a pragmatic approach to maintaining independence and prosperity in a multipolar geopolitical landscape. This adaptation to a changing world order, prioritizing diplomacy and economic engagement alongside military strength, contrasts with earlier periods' more insular or purely expansionist policies. Despite the Saite resurgence, Egypt eventually succumbed to foreign domination. The Persian ruler Cambyses II invaded Egypt in 525 BCE, defeating Psamtek III at Pelusium and capturing Memphis, effectively ending Dynasty 26 and incorporating Egypt as a province of the Persian Empire.1 Although Egyptians briefly regained independence under Dynasties 28-30 (400-341 BCE), Nectanebo II, the last native king, lost control to the Persians in 343 BCE and fled to Nubia, marking the end of ethnically native Egyptian rule until the 20th century.1 A significant administrative and cultural development of this period was the widespread introduction and use of Demotic script. Evolving from hieratic, Demotic became the recognized script for administrative, legal, and economic documents by the reign of Ahmose II.1 Its spread from the Delta southwards marked the imposition of a new, uniform administration across Egypt.1 This linguistic standardization was a crucial administrative reform aimed at enhancing bureaucratic efficiency and uniformity across the reunified country, reflecting a deliberate effort to strengthen central control and streamline governance after periods of fragmentation. ### Ptolemaic Period (c. 332 – 30 BCE) The Ptolemaic Period began with the conquest of Egypt by Alexander the Great in 331 BCE. Alexander, presenting himself as a liberator, founded Alexandria as a new international commercial center, respecting and supporting Egyptian religious and political traditions.1 Alexandria became the capital in 305/304 BCE, attracting a significant influx of immigrants, primarily Greeks, but also Jews, Syrians, and other Semitic peoples.1 The city was strategically divided into five quarters, with Rhakotis (Epsilon) designated for native Egyptians, indicating a considerable Egyptian presence from its inception.1 Under Ptolemy I Soter, the new dynasty established a dynastic cult to connect their rule to Alexander, promoting themselves as Pharaohs through extensive sacred building programs at sites like Edfu, Dendera, and Philae.1 This Hellenic royal style coexisted with the Egyptian one, with Ptolemaic rulers depicted in Egyptian monuments in the guise of traditional pharaohs.1 The Ptolemies pursued a policy of cultural interaction, leading to mixed marriages and individuals with double names in documents, though official categorization remained Greek or Egyptian.1 By the 2nd century BCE, Egyptians gradually gained access to upper classes and high positions in state administration and the army.1 This deliberate policy of cultural interaction, blending Hellenistic and Egyptian traditions, was a sophisticated strategy to legitimize foreign rule and integrate diverse populations, creating a shared cultural identity that balanced indigenous traditions with Hellenistic influence. Economic administration under the Ptolemies was complex, as revealed by documents like P. Haun. IV 70 from the Apollonopolite (Edfu) nome, dating to 119/118 BCE.1 This land survey is crucial for understanding land tenure patterns in Upper Egypt, which differed significantly from the north, with a notable amount of private land recorded in the south.1 The survey detailed various land categories (e.g., land in release, cleruchic, private, derelict) and their corresponding tax rates, often in wheat.1 Annual cadastral surveys and crop reports were standard operations, reflecting a meticulous approach to resource management.1 The detailed Edfu land survey highlights significant regional variations in land tenure and taxation practices within Ptolemaic Egypt. This indicates that despite a centralized administration, the Ptolemies implemented adaptive economic policies that acknowledged and managed local specificities, suggesting a more flexible and pragmatic approach to governance than a uniform, top-down imposition. Cultural interaction and syncretism were prominent features of the Ptolemaic era. The Sarapis cult, originating in Memphis and emerging in Alexandria under Ptolemy I or II, was a syncretic god combining Egyptian (Osiris-Apis) and Greek (Dionysus, Hades, Zeus, Asklepios) elements.1 Its cult center, the Sarapeion, was located in the Egyptian quarter of Alexandria.1 While popular among the Greek upper classes, it initially had little appeal to Egyptians.1 The Isis cult also spread widely across the Mediterranean from the 4th century BCE, adapting to new cultures and often utilized by Hellenistic rulers for political purposes.1 Ptolemaic queens, notably Cleopatra VII, were strongly associated with Isis, embodying the role of "New Isis".1 Alexandrian monumental tombs, particularly elite hypogea, showcased a blend of Egyptian and Greek funerary architecture and decoration.1 These tombs incorporated Egyptian elements like loculi burials, architectural layouts, and decorative motifs such as naiskoi, sphinxes, and scenes of Osiris's death and resurrection, alongside Greek architectural styles.1 This resulted in "composite-balanced versions" and "Greek indigenizing architecture," demonstrating a rich cultural interplay in funerary practices.1 The Pharos lighthouse, a colossal tripartite structure on Pharos Island, stood as the third-highest edifice in Egypt, potentially influenced by Egyptian solar temples, reflecting the Ptolemies' ambition to leave a monumental mark on Egyptian history.1 Ptolemaic coinage also reflected this dual identity, featuring Alexander and Zeus-Ammon, and later incorporating Sarapis and Isis, with symbols like the eagle holding a thunderbolt and an Isis crown representing a balanced Greco-Egyptian identity.1 ### Roman Period (c. 30 BCE – 395 CE) The defeat of Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the naval battle of Actium in 31 BCE marked the end of Egypt's independence, leading to its incorporation as a Roman province directly controlled by the Emperor.1 This new status meant Egypt became the personal domain of the Emperor, mirroring the Pharaoh's absolute ownership during indigenous dynastic periods, though without a resident ruling family.1 Roman senators were notably forbidden from entering Egypt without imperial permission, a policy designed to prevent them from raising armies and to secure the vital grain supply for Rome.1 Despite the shift in political control, the Romans largely preserved Egypt's religion and culture, even expanding upon some Ptolemaic innovations. Roman emperors continued the policy of their predecessors, presenting themselves as the new Pharaonic dynasty of Egypt. The imperial cult, with its specific Roman roots, merged seamlessly with the Hellenistic royal cult and Pharaonic tradition, forming a unique ruler cult for Egypt.1 This approach led to the completion, rebuilding, or addition of structures to ancient Egyptian temples, such as those dedicated to Hathor in Dendera and Isis in Philae, demonstrating a strategic continuity in religious patronage.1 Roman Egypt developed a complex ethno-class-based social structure, distinct from the more fluid Ptolemaic policies. At the apex were Roman citizens, followed by the Astoi (residents of the three major 'Hellenic' cities: Alexandria, Naucratis, and Ptolemais, later joined by Antinoopolis).1 The broadest category was "Egyptians," which included the Hellenes or Metropolitai (privileged residents of Metropoleis who paid a lower poll tax and formed the governing class of these towns, yet were still fundamentally considered "Egyptians").1 Greek became the official written language throughout Roman Egypt.1 The formal ethno-class-based social structure implemented by the Romans, where "Greekness" conferred a significant tax reduction and higher status despite centuries of intermarriage, represents a deliberate system of control. This approach used ethnic categorization to create social hierarchies and manage the province, prioritizing loyalty and economic benefits for favored groups over genuine cultural integration, a stark contrast to the Ptolemaic attempts at cultural blending. Alexandria, despite experiencing violent reactions from the Romans due to its involvement in Roman politics (e.g., Caesar's siege in 48 BCE, Caracalla's visit in 215 CE, Aurelian's attack in 272 CE, Diocletian's siege in 297/298 CE), underwent extensive renovations and monumentalization.1 Emperors like Hadrian and Antoninus Pius contributed to its grandeur, preserving and renovating Greek-style facilities while constructing new buildings like the Hadrianeion and Caesareum.1 The famous "Cleopatra's Needles," two red granite obelisks from Heliopolis, were brought to Alexandria by the Romans, further adding to the city's monumental landscape.1 The Sarapeion also underwent significant renovation, becoming more monumental while retaining its Ptolemaic structure, with Hadrian dedicating a basalt Apis-bull image to it.1 Roman coinage from Alexandria provides rich information about the evolving relationship between the city and Roman emperors. Imperial visits were often commemorated, and Egyptian elements became increasingly common on coins, especially during Domitian's reign.1 Sarapis emerged as the most popular theme, often portrayed with Isis and Harpocrates, representing Egypt throughout the Roman Empire.1 The emergence of "Sarapis Pantheos," incorporating attributes of various gods, further illustrates this syncretic trend.1 The prominent portrayal of Sarapis, Isis, and other Egyptian deities on Roman coinage from Alexandria demonstrates the Roman Empire's strategic appropriation and universalization of indigenous gods. This transformation of local deities into pan-imperial symbols highlights the Roman pragmatic approach to religious policy, using existing religious frameworks to foster loyalty and project imperial power across their vast empire. ## Conclusion: The Enduring Legacy of Ancient Egypt The chronological breakdown of ancient Egyptian history reveals a civilization defined by remarkable resilience and adaptability, characterized by recurring cycles of centralized unity, political fragmentation, and subsequent reunification. Periods of strong pharaonic rule, exemplified by the monumental achievements of the Old Kingdom and the imperial expansion of the New Kingdom, contrast sharply with the internal divisions and external pressures of the Intermediate Periods. Each cycle, however, saw the re-establishment of the Egyptian state, consistently centered around the divine kingship and the life-sustaining fertility of the Nile Valley. Despite its eventual incorporation into successive foreign empires—Persian, Ptolemaic, and Roman—ancient Egypt left an indelible mark on human civilization. Its contributions extend far beyond its iconic pyramids and temples, encompassing sophisticated administrative systems that evolved to manage vast territories and resources, and advancements in writing systems from formal hieroglyphs to the more efficient hieratic and Demotic scripts. The development of practical mathematics, elaborate funerary practices, and a rich religious and intellectual tradition, cultivated by a specialized priesthood, underscore its profound cultural depth. The strategic adaptations in foreign policy, military technology (influenced by the Hyksos), and cultural integration (as seen in the Ptolemaic syncretism and Roman appropriation of deities) demonstrate a civilization capable of absorbing external influences while maintaining its distinct identity. The enduring global fascination with ancient Egypt today is a testament to its profound and lasting cultural and historical legacy, a testament to its ability to shape not only its own destiny but also the broader trajectory of human civilization. #### Works cited 1. [[Diffusion of the Cult of Isis from Egypt Across the Mediterranean World]] 2. Ancient Egyptian funerary practices - Wikipedia, accessed June 13, 2025, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_funerary_practices](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_funerary_practices) 3. Daily Life in Ancient Egypt - Digital Giza, accessed June 13, 2025, [https://giza-web2.rc.fas.harvard.edu/lessons/the-old-kingdom-the-age-of-the-pyramids](https://giza-web2.rc.fas.harvard.edu/lessons/the-old-kingdom-the-age-of-the-pyramids) 4. Ancient Egyptian Politics and the Power Behind the Throne - Egypt Tours Portal, accessed June 13, 2025, [https://www.egypttoursportal.com/blog/ancient-egyptian-civilization/ancient-egyptian-politics/](https://www.egypttoursportal.com/blog/ancient-egyptian-civilization/ancient-egyptian-politics/) 5. Ancient Egyptian Architecture (History & Characteristics) - Egypt Tours Portal, accessed June 13, 2025, [https://www.egypttoursportal.com/en-us/ancient-egyptian-architecture/](https://www.egypttoursportal.com/en-us/ancient-egyptian-architecture/) 6. Ancient Egyptian architecture - Wikipedia, accessed June 13, 2025, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_architecture](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_architecture) 7. Daily Life in Ancient Egypt - World History Encyclopedia, accessed June 13, 2025, [https://www.worldhistory.org/article/933/daily-life-in-ancient-egypt/](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/933/daily-life-in-ancient-egypt/) 8. Egyptian Social Organization—from the Pharaoh to the farmer (Part 2) - Smarthistory, accessed June 13, 2025, [https://smarthistory.org/egyptian-social-organization-from-pharaoh-to-farmer/](https://smarthistory.org/egyptian-social-organization-from-pharaoh-to-farmer/) 9. Social Structure in Ancient Egypt - World History Encyclopedia, accessed June 13, 2025, [https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1123/social-structure-in-ancient-egypt/](https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1123/social-structure-in-ancient-egypt/) 10. EGYPTIAN FUNERARY PRACTICES AND THE FIRST INTERMEDIATE PERIOD, accessed June 13, 2025, [https://www.uc.edu/content/dam/refresh/cont-ed-62/olli/21-fall/egypt3.pdf](https://www.uc.edu/content/dam/refresh/cont-ed-62/olli/21-fall/egypt3.pdf) 11. Second Intermediate Period of Ancient Egypt (1640-1540 B.C.), accessed June 13, 2025, [https://africame.factsanddetails.com/article/entry-1046.html](https://africame.factsanddetails.com/article/entry-1046.html) 12. Hyksos Create Second Intermediate Period | EBSCO Research Starters, accessed June 13, 2025, [https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/history/hyksos-create-second-intermediate-period](https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/history/hyksos-create-second-intermediate-period) 13. Third Intermediate Period Begins in Egypt | EBSCO Research Starters, accessed June 13, 2025, [https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/history/third-intermediate-period-begins-egypt](https://www.ebsco.com/research-starters/history/third-intermediate-period-begins-egypt) 14. Third Intermediate Period of Egypt - Wikipedia, accessed June 13, 2025, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Intermediate_Period_of_Egypt) # Early Dynastic Period 3100-2686 BCE ## First Dynasty 3100-2890 BCE ### 3100 BCE A king with two names The names of Aha, of the First Dynasty, are shown in this detail from an ivory label found in the tomb of Queen Neithotep, who was probably Aha's wife. Under the Horus falcon is Aha. The other name is "Men', giving rise to the idea that Aha and the semi-mythical founder of Memphis, Menes, were one and the same person. Aha was the immediate successor to Narmer, the first pharaoh of a united Egypt, and probably his son. His name means 'the fighter' Two tombs have been discovered one at Abydos, the other at Saqqara - one of which was perhaps a cenotaph. ### 3000 BCE The royal palace The pharaoh Djer built his royal palace at Memphis, the capital founded by his father. The 'palace façade' (shown in plan and elevation in the sketch) formed part of a motif known as :'serekh' in which the Horus name of the pharaoh was enclosed. The serekh was the forerunner of the cartouche. Djer, son of Aha, succeeded his father as pharaoh of Egypt. His name means 'Horus, he who gives succour. His tomb at Abydos was the first to have different chambers filled with grave goods. ### 2980 BCE Djet, also known as the serpent, was interred at Abydos in a wood-lined burial chamber. Close to his tomb was a limestone funerary stele, now in the Louvre, Paris, which bears the hieroglyph of a serpent, of which the phonetic value is 'djet ### 2950 BCE Den, the son and successor to Djet, was one of the most important pharaohs of the First Dynasty. His name means 'Horus, he who strikes'. Den was the first monarch to boast the title "king of Upper and Lower Egypt and first added the title he of the sedge and bee' to the royal names, His tomb at Abydos is the earliest example of stone being used in a funerary monument. ### 2925 BCE Anedjib, whose name means saved is his heart', was the first ruler to add the title of Two Ladies' to his name, emphasizing that he was the ruler of both Upper and Lower Egypt. His tomb at Abydos contained a mud-brick, stepped structure which is thought to be the precursor of the stepped pyramid. ### 2900 BCE Semerkhet usurped the throne of Anedjib and was in his turn overthrown by Qa'a. His name means 'attentive friend'. [[Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt Revised Edition]] Page 26 ## Second Dynasty 2890-2686 BCE ### 2890 BCE Qa'a came to the throne after overthrowing Semerkhet. He was the last pharaoh of the First Dynasty. His name means 'his arm is raised" Hetepsekhemwy, founder of the Second Dynasty, established peace between Upper and Lower Egypt. His name means pleasing in powers'. He built his tomb at Saqqara, near Memphis, which was now the sole capital of Egypt ### 2865 BCE Raneb was the second pharaoh of the Second Dynasty. His name means 'Ra is the lord', the oldest evidence for the birth of a cult to this deity, set up by the priests of Heliopolis in Lower Egypt. ### 2825 BCE Nynetier was the third pharaoh of the Second Dynasty. When the tension within Upper Egypt heightened, he dismantled the fortresses of several cities in the Delta. His name means 'divine'. ### 2700 BCE Weneg and Sened are known only by their names. It is probable that their power was limited to the Memphis area and that another unknown pharaoh controlled Upper Egypt. Peribsen re-established the capital at Thinis and was buried at Abydos, next to the tombs of the kings of the First Dynasty. It is possible that there was conflict between Upper and Lower Egypt, but seal impressions found at Elephantine confirm that his kingdom stretched as far south as the First Cataract His name is often followed by the description conqueror of foreign lands. ### 2686 BCE Khasekhemwy was a warrior king who fought a bloody war against the north of the country, in which more than 47,000 of the enemy died. This led to the re-unification of the two kingdoms. His serekh unites Horus and Seth, perhaps indicating a return to religious and political harmony. [[Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt Revised Edition]] Page 26 # Old Kingdom 2686-2181 BCE ## Third Dynasty 2686-2613 BCE ### 2686 BCE Old Kingdom Begins ### 2667 BCE Tomb complex of Djoser The second pharaoh of the Old Kingdom, Djoser built the first step pyramid at Saqqara, the largest necropolis in the capital, Memphis. It has been suggested that the monumental tomb complex surrounding the pyramid was a stone image of the capital in which the king's palace was located. The first monument to be built entirely from cut cubic stone, it was designed by the architect Imhotep. ### 2613 BCE Tomb furnishings of Hetepheres Hetepheres was the wife of Sneferu, the founder of the Fourth Dynasty, and the mother of Khufu. Her son had her reburied near his own pyramid in Giza after her first tomb had been partially robbed. The well-preserved tomb ornaments found in Giza, such as these bracelets, are a testimony to the splendor of such burials in the Old Kingdom. [[Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt Revised Edition]] Page 30 ## Fourth Dynasty 2613-2494 BCE ### 2494 BCE Beginning of the Fourth Dynasty Sneferu founded the Fourth Dynasty. From then, the birth name of the ruler was framed by a cartouche. In search of the perfect tomb image, Sneferu had no fewer than three pyramids built at Meidum and Dahshur. His name means the one made perfectly. Khufu was the successor of Sneferu and builder of the largest pyramid at Giza. His name means Kkhnum protects me'. During his 23-year reign, his power remained unchallenged. In Greek texts, he is called a 'loathsome tyrant', but Khufu was one of the mightiest Egyptian pharaohs. [[Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt Revised Edition]] Page 30 ## Fifth Dynasty 2494-2345 ### 2494 BCE Userkaf was the founder of the Fifth Dynasty. He separated the mortuary cult from the cult of the sun god, Ra. During his reign, the number of titles of the king was extended to five by adding a throne name' Userkafs name means 'effective is his ka'. ### 2487 BCE Sahura was the brother and successor of Userkaf. His name means 'Ra comes to me'. The core of his pyramid at Abusir consisted of fragmented stone rather than stone blocks. The first expedition to Punt took place during his reign. ### 2445 BCE Nyuserra also had his pyramid built in Abusir. During his reign, the first sun sanctuary was built in Abu Gurab at the western edge of the desert, and is the best preserved sun temple of the Fifth Dynasty. His name means 'the power belongs to Ra' ### 2375 BCE Unas the last ruler of the Fifth Dynasty. He built small pyramid in Saqqara and, for the first time, had its internal walls inscribed with Pyramid Texts. [[Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt Revised Edition]] Page 31 ## Sixth Dynasty 2345-2181 ### 2345 BCE Teti was the founder of the Sixth Dynasty, although he was not of royal descent. Several influential viziers are known from his reign, among them Mereruka and Kagemni. Teti built his pyramid complex in north Saqqara. ### 2321 BCE Pepy I was the son of Teti. He developed an active foreign policy undertook several military expeditions to Asia and colonized the Libyan oases. His pyramid complex in south Saqqara was called Merire-mennefer, probably giving Memphis its name. ### 2278 BCE Реpy II was the successor and younger brother of Merenra. His reign, lasting for-about 60 years, was one of the longest in Ancient Egyptian history. Under his rule, the final decline of the Egyptian state of the Old Kingdom took place. His small pyramid in south Saqqara is the last of the period. [[Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt Revised Edition]] Page 31 # First Intermediate Period 2181-2055 BCE ### 2170 BCE Neferkare A number of short reigning kings of the 7th and 8th Dynasties took the throne name of Pepy II. In this way, they tried to continue the tradition of the late Old Kingdom and to legitimize their reign. The name of Neferkare is mentioned in the tomb of Ankhtify at el-Mo'ala. It means 'Perfect is the ka of Ra'. [[Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt Revised Edition]] Page 38 ## Ninth and Eleventh Dynasty ruled from Hierakonpolis (2160 BCE-2055 BCE) ### 2160 BCE A Tomb of Ankhtify A provincial governor of the nomes of Hierakonpolis and Edfu, Ankhtify (c. 2160 BC), was an opponent of the Thebans. Stele of Heka and his wife Hemet The only relief decorations tombs of low-ranking officials in provincial cemeteries of the First Intermediate Period were small limestone stelae, the work of local craftsmen. ### 2130 BCE Stele of Khety Only a few stelae and false doors come from Herakleopolis, the capital of egypt during the 9th and 10th Dynasties. They bear the names and titles of some officials from that time, and are from the badly damaged necropolis of the First Intermediate period. ## Eleventh Dynasty ruled from Thebes (2125 BCE-2055 BCE) ### 2125 BCE Intef I Sehertawy The first Theban governor, Intef I officially adopted the royal title, thus threatening the rulers of Herakleopolis. According to contemporary texts, at the end of his 12-year reign, after his victory over the provincial governor Ankhtify, he ruled the territory of the southernmost six nomes, from Elephantine to Dendra. ### 2135 BCE Mentuhotep I The founder of the dynasty of Thebes, with the birth name 'Montu is content', did not bear the kings title but only that of a provincial governor. The two kings succeeding him to the throne were probably his sons. ### 2112 BCE Stele of Tjetji Tjetji the treasury administrator of King Intef II, writes on his stele of his many years of service, when the country was under Intef's control, in the south to Elephantine and in the north to Thinis ### 2110 BCE Intef II Wahankh The reign of Intef II, whose Horus name means “With eternal life’, lasted 50 years, during which time the first serious conflicts with Herakleopolis took place. He extended the sphere of influence of the Thebans almost up to Asyut by conquering the 8th Upper Egyptian province with the towns of Thinis and Abydos. According to the inscription on the tomb stele of Intef Il, the northern border of the province in his 50th year of rule was in the 10th Upper Egyptian province at Qau el-Kebir. Among his opponents were the provincial governors of Asyut, who were allies of the rulers of Herakleopolis The tomb of Intef II is in the northern part of the Theban necropolis. It is called a saff tomb because of its striking facade with a row of pillars (saff means ‘pillar’ in Arabic). ### 2055 BCE Mentuhotep II After leading the decisive battles against the kingdom of Herakleopolis, Mentuhotep II unified Egypt once again, founding the Middle Kingdom. [[Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt Revised Edition]] Page 38-39 # Middle Kingdom 2055-1650 BCE ### 2055 BCE Unification of the country by Mentuhotep II, Beginning of Middle Kingdom Mentuhotep II was the first ruler of the Eleventh Dynasty. His victory over Herakleopolis Magna around 2055 Bc resulted in the reunification of Egypt, and he is regarded as the founder of the Middle Kingdom. Immediately following the reunification, he launched military campaigns against Nubia and Palestine. His building projects comprised the temple of Montu at Tod, chapels for Hathor at Dendera and for Osiris at Abydos, and a sanctuary for Satet on the Nile island of Elephantine. At the mortuary temple of the king at Deir el-Bahri there are also tombs with elaborately decorated chapels and sarcophagi of six of his secondary wives. His name means ‘Montu is content’. ### 2004 BCE Royal funerary equipment Only a few remains of Mentuhotep II's funerary equipment were found in his tomb at Deir el-Bahri — all royal tombs of this period had been plundered in ancient times. Mentuhotep III During his reign, Sankhkara (‘he who lets live the ka of Ra’) gave orders for a trade expedition of 3,000 men under the official Henenu along Wadi Hammamat to the Red Sea, and from there to Punt. Both his and his father’s tombs are at Deir el-Bahri. Egypt in the Middle Kingdom After the end of the civil war between the northern and southern parts of the country, the pharaohs of the Eleventh Dynasty moved the seat of the government of Egypt to their home city of Thebes. At the beginning of the Twelfth Dynasty, they returned to the north, making Itjtawy near the fertile Fayum Oasis their residence. ### 1992 BCE Mentuhotep IV The last pharaoh of the Eleventh Dynasty, Nebtawyra is documented only by rock inscriptions at Wadi Hammamat in the eastern desert. An expedition under the vizier Amenemhat was sent to Wadi Hammamat to gather material for the king’s sarcophagus. Nebtawyra’s tomb itself has not been discovered. His name means ‘Ra is the lord of the two countries’. ## Twelfth Dynasty 1985-1795 ### 1985 BCE Amenemhat I The birth name of the founder of the Twelfth Dynasty was ‘Amun is at the head’. Amenemhat |, probably the same person as the vizier of the same name of Mentuhotep IV, moved the royal residence from Thebes to Itjtawy and reorganized Egypt's administration. Some of his building projects were concentrated on the Delta. Possibly assassinated, he was buried in his pyramid near el-Lisht. ### 1965 BCE Senusret I Appointed co-regent by Amenemhat I, Senusret I heard the surprising news of his father’s death while on a campaign against Libya, as told in The Tale of Sinuhe. During his long reign, he took care of the development of the Fayum region. He constructed and extended many temples and monuments, among them the ‘white chapel’ at Karnak, and secured the conquered territories in Nubia by building several fortresses. His pyramid is at el-Lisht. [[Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt Revised Edition]] Page 48 ### 1922 BCE Amenemhat II Little is known of the 44 years of Amenemhat II’s reign, apart from a military campaign to Syria — with 1,500 prisoners being brought back to Egypt — and various trade missions. His limestone-encased pyramid is at Dahshur. ### 1880 BCE Senusret II This pharaoh, ‘the manifestation of Ra appears in glory’, expanded commerce with Syria, as is documented by the depiction of a trade caravan in a viceroy’s tomb at Beni Hasan. The large town site near his pyramid at el-Lahun served on occasion as his residence. Relief from the ‘white chapel’ at Karnak One of the most significant works of art of the Middle Kingdom is the so-called ‘white chapel’ at the temple complex of Karnak from the reign of Senusret |. The chapel was pulled down in antiquity and the twentieth century. The viceroys’ cemeteries The magnificent rock-cut tombs at Beni Hasan show that the viceroys initially were allowed to keep their wealth, although the kings of the Twelfth Dynasty curbed their power. ### 1874 BCE Senusret III The most important, and probably best known, ruler of the Twelfth Dynasty abolished the inheritability of a viceroy’s office. Four campaigns to Nubia enabled him finally to establish Egypt’s southern border near Semna at the Second Cataract. His badly damaged pyramid is at Dahshur. Senusret III Senusret III regularized internal affairs and pushed back the southern borders of Egypt to the Second Cataract. ### 1855 BCE Amenemhat III Amenemhat III was already known to Classical authors because of his famous mortuary temple, the 'Labyrinth', at Hawara. The main achievement in his 50-year reign was the final economic and political development of the Fayum, where he also built several temples with expeditions to the quarries of Sinai and Wadi Hammamat and to Nubia. Before he has his pyramid and mortuary temple erected at Hawara, he built a smaller pyramid at Dahshur. Apart from increasing economic relations with Byblos and Crete, this pharaoh heavily exploited the mineral resources of Sinai. ### 1808 BCE Amenemhat IV This ruler, who had the throne name 'Ra is justified', encouraged trade with Byblos, where several artefacts bearing his name were found. Amenemhat IV ### 1799 BCE Sobekneferu The last ruler of the Middle Kingdom was a woman - Queen Sobekneferu, 'the beauty of Sobek', a daughter of Amenemhat III and the wife of Amenemhat IV. After the latter's death, she ascended the throne and assumed the complete titulary of a male pharaoh, as only Hatshepsut and Tausret did after her. ### 1795 BCE With the death of Sobekneferu, the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Dynasties comprised minor ephemeral rulers. The Second Intermediate period began 445 years later in 1650 BCE. [[Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt Revised Edition]] Page 49 ## Thirteenth Dynasty 1795-1650 BCE ### 1795 BCE Wegaf Khuitawyra was the first king of the Thirteenth Dynasty, with the throne name ‘Ra protects the Two Lands’. A military commander, his reign probably lasted for about a year. Four of his monuments are preserved. ### 1780 BCE Sekhemrakhuitawy was the third king of the Thirteenth Dynasty, who, according to the Turin Royal Canon, reigned for six years. Several stone blocks from a monument erected during his reign are preserved and his name is also attested to by seals from the Nubian fortress of Uronarti at the Second Cataract. ### 1760 BCE Hor I (Awibra) was presumably the 14th king of the Thirteenth Dynasty, who gave orders for the restoration works on the pyramid of Amenemhat III at Dahshur. Hor's tomb, with its well-preserved funerary equipment, was located inside the district of Amenemhat III's pyramid. ### 1750 BCE Khendjer was the 17th king of the Thirteenth Dynasty, who reigned for about six years. As one of the few rulers who reigned for any length of time, he had a pyramid and a mortuary temple built at Saqqara. The black granite pyramidion, with the name of the king, was reassembled from numerous fragments. ### 1735 BCE Neferhotep I (Khasekhemra) The 22nd king of the Thirteenth Dynasty ruled for about 11 years. He had the statue of Osiris re-erected at Abydos and donated statues to several Ancient Egyptian temples. ### 1725 BCE Sobekhotep IV (Khaneferra) was the most important king of the Thirteenth Dynasty, who reigned for about eight years. He led a campaign to Nubia, had contacts with the Near East and had his own statues erected in several temples. ### 1695 BCE lhy I (Merineferra) was the 27th, and last, ruler of the Thirteenth Dynasty, whose name is still attested in all of Egypt The pyramidion of his pyramid, probably built at Saqqara, was found in the Delta. # Second Intermediate Period 1650-1550 BCE [[Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt Revised Edition]] Page 60 ## Fourteenth Dynasty (in the Delta) 1795-1650 BCE ## Fifteenth Dynasty (Hyksos) 1650-1530BCE ## Sixteenth Dynasty (Minor Hyksos rulers) 1650-1550 BCE ## Seventeenth Dynasty (in Thebes) 1580-1550 BCE ### 1630 BCE Meriuserra Jaqob-her was probably one of the Hyksos kings of the Fifteenth Dynasty. His name is found on scarabs from all over Egypt, and even in foreign territories such as Kerma and Palestine, implying that there were trade relations with these regions. ### 1610 BCE Khyan (Seuserenra) was one of the most significant kings of the Fifteenth Dynasty. Several monuments with his name have been found in Egypt and abroad, for example the statue of a resting lion in Baghdad and a granite block at Gebelein in Upper Egypt. Anat-her Heka-khasw was one of the kings of the Sixteenth Dynasty, a vassal of the Hyksos, who possibly ruled in southern Palestine and not in Egypt. His name is attested on only a single scarab. ### 1600 BCE IntefVII (Sekhemra-Herwhermaat) was the 12th king of the Seventeenth Dynasty, ruling at Thebes probably with a very short reign. His throne name was A powerful one, a Ra, who is satisfied with Maat His rishi coffin, which was typical for the time, is found at the Louvre in Paris. ### 1560 BCE Taa ll was the 14th king of the Seventeenth Dynasty. According to a papyrus, he fought with the Hyksos king Apepi, to whom he had to pay tribute. Judging by the wounds on his mummy, he fell in battle. His coffin was found at the cachette at Deir el-Bahari. ### 1555 BCE Kamose was the last king of the Seventeenth Dynasty. He continued the battle against the Hyksos started by his father. His war report is written on two steles, which he had erected at Karnak. ### 1550 BCE Apepi I was the most important king of the 15th Dynasty, whose 33rd year of reign is attested by the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus During his rule, the quarrels between the Hyksos kings residing in the Delta and the native Egyptian rulers living in Thebes began. The Second Intermediate period ended in 1550 BCE when the rulers of the Eighteenth Dynasty - founders of the New Kingdom - regained power over the entire country. [[Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt Revised Edition]] Page 61 # New Kingdom 1550-1069 BCE Early 18th-Dynasty levels at Avaris (Tell el-Dabea) record the name of Ahmose. [[The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt]] Page 242 Theban rulers of the Eighteenth Dynasty (1550-1295 BCE) expelled the Hyksos kings - foreign invaders from Palestine - who had controlled the country since about 1650 Bc. Under a succession of pharaohs, including Thutmose I (1504-1492 Bc) and his grandson Thutmose III (1479-1425 BCE). Egypt extended its boundaries to Syria in the north and to the Fourth Cataract of the Nile in Upper Nubia (modern Sudan) to the south. A Golden Age The reign of Amenhotep II (1390-1352 BCE) marked the golden age of the Eighteenth Dynasty. When he became pharaoh, Amenhotep III inherited a peaceful kingdom and a sophisticated, cosmopolitan court. Taking advantage of Egypt’s prosperity, he set about increasing the splendor of his kingdom by building sumptuous monuments. The most notorious pharaoh, however, was his son Akhenaten (1352-1336 BCE), who attempted to sweep away the old religious order and replace it with a single deity, the Aten. Traditional beliefs were restored under the reign of the boy king Tutankhamun (1336-1327 BCE), the most famous of the New Kingdom rulers, but about whom little is known; Tutankhamun’s fame rests on the fabulous treasures discovered in his tomb. [[Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt Revised Edition]] Page 64 ### 1525 BCE Ahmose I Ahmose I is viewed to be the founder of the eighteenth dynasty. He continued the campaigns of his father Seqenenre Tao and of Kamose against the Hyksos until he reunified the country once more. Ahmose would then continue to campaign in the Levant, the home of the Hyksos, to prevent any future invasions on Egypt. Amenhotep I also campaigned in Nubia ### 1541 BCE Amenhotep I Son of Ahmose I. Amenhotep I led campaigns in Nubia down to the 3rd Nile cataract. He also introduced the practice of having the tomb and funerary temple in separate locations rather than in the same location. It is possible that Amenhotep I and his mother Ahmose-Nefertari founded the tomb workers village of Deir-el-Medina, the two were honored as gods by later residents. ### 1520 BCE Thutmose I Thutmose I campaigned in the Levant and reached as far as the Euphrates, thus becoming the first pharaoh to cross the river. During this campaign, the Syrian princes declared allegiance to Thutmose. However, after he returned, they discontinued tribute and began fortifying against future incursions. Father unknown, though possibly Amenhotep I. His mother is known to be Senseneb. Thutmose I established family control over the Egyptian throne for the next 175 years. Thutmose I defeated the Kingdom of Kush and destroyed Kerma in Nubia, he campaigned in Syria as far as the Euphrates River. He is also the father of Thutmose II and Hatshepsut. ### 1492 BCE Thutmose II Son of Thutmose I. Grandson of Ahmose I through his mother, Mutnofret. ### 1479 BCE Hatshepsut The second known female ruler of Egypt. May have ruled jointly with her nephew Thutmose III during the early part of her reign. Famous for her expedition to Punt documented on her famous Mortuary Temple at Deir el-Bahari. Built many temples and monuments. Ruled during the height of Egypt's power. Was the daughter of Thutmose I and the Great Wife of her brother Thutmose II. ### 1458 BCE Thutmose III Son of Thutmose II. May have ruled jointly with Hatshepsut, his aunt and step-mother, during the early part of her reign. Famous for his territorial expansion into the Levant and Nubia. Under his reign, the Ancient Egyptian Empire was at its greatest extent. Ruled during the height of Egypt's Power. Before the end of his reign, he obliterated Hatshepsut's name and image from temples and monuments. ### 1425 BCE Amenhotep II Son of Thutmose III. Ruled during the height of Egypt's Power. ### 1400 BCE Thutmose IV Famous for his Dream Stele. Son of Amenhotep II. Ruled during the height of Egypt's Power. ### 1390 BCE Amenhotep III Father of Akhenaten and grandfather of Tutankhamun. Ruled Egypt at the height of its power. Built many temples and monuments, including his enormous Mortuary Temple. Was the son of Thutmose IV. ### 1352 BCE Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten) "Heretic Pharaoh" Founder of the Amarna Period in which he changed the state religion from the polytheistic Ancient Egyptian religion to the Monotheistic Atenism, centered around the worship of the Aten, an image of the sun disc. (This is still debated on if it was actually monotheism). He moved the capital to Akhetaten. Was the second son of Amenhotep III. He changed his name from Amenhotep (Amun is pleased) to Akhenaten (Effective for the Aten) to reflect his religion change. ### 1335 BCE Smenkhkare Ruled jointly with Akhenaten during the later years of his reign. Unknown if Smenkhare ever ruled in his own right. Identity and even the gender of Smenkhare is uncertain. Some suggest he may have been the son of Akhenaten, possibly the same person as Tutankhamun; others speculate Smenkhare may have been Nefertiti or Meritaten. May have been succeeded by or identical with a female pharaoh named Neferneferuaten. ### 1334 BCE Neferneferuaten A female pharaoh, possibly the same ruler as Smenkhkare. Archaeological evidence relates to a woman who reigned as pharaoh toward the end of the Amarna Period. It is likely she was Nefertiti. ### 1332 BCE Tutankhaten / Tutankhamun Commonly believed to be the son of Akhenaten, most likely reinstated the polytheistic Ancient Egyptian religion. His name change from Tutankhaten to Tutankhamun reflects the change in religion from Atenism to the classic religion, of which Amun is a major deity. He is thought to have taken the throne at around age eight or nine and to have died around age eighteen or nineteen, giving him the nickname "The Boy King." Tutankhamun was a weak ruler suffering from multiple health issues. However, he became famous for being buried in a decorative tomb intended for someone else called KV62. ### 1324 BCE Ay II Was Grand Vizier to Tutankhamun and an important official during the reigns of Akhenaten and Smenkhkare. Possibly the brother of Tiye, Great Wife of Amenhotep III, and also possibly father of Nefertiti, Great Wife of Akhenaten. Believed to have been born into nobility, but not royalty. Succeeded Tutankhamun due to his lack of an heir. ### 1320 BCE Horemheb Born a Commoner. Was a General during the Amarna Period. Obliterated Images of the Amarna Pharaohs and destroyed and vandalized buildings and monuments associated with them. Succeeded Ay despite Nakhtmin being the intended heir. ## Nineteenth Dynasty (1292–1189 BCE) ### 1292 BCE Ramesses I Already Grand Vizier, of non-royal birth. Succeeded Horemheb due to his lack of an heir. ### 1290 BCE Seti I Regained much of the territory that was lost under the reign of Akhenaten. ### 1279 BCE Ramesses II the Great Continued expanding Egypt's territory until he reached a stalemate with the Hittite Empire at the Battle of Kadesh in 1275 BCE, after which the famous Egyptian–Hittite peace treaty was signed in 1258 BCE. Had one of the longest Egyptian reigns. Known for his large scale construction projects, including many now famous monuments. ### 1213 BCE Merneptah Thirteenth son of Ramesses II ### 1203 BCE Amenmesse Most likely a usurper to the throne. Possibly ruled in opposition to Seti II. Suggested son of Merneptah. Seti II Son of Merneptah. May have had to overcome a contest by Amenmesse before he could solidify his claim to the throne. ### 1197 BCE (Merenptah) Siptah Possibly son of Seti II or Amenmesse, ascended to throne at a young age. ### 1191 BCE Tausret Probably the wife of Seti II. Also known as Twosret or Tawosret. # Twentieth Dynasty (1190 to 1077 BCE) ### 1190 BCE Setnakhte Not related to Seti II, Siptah, or Tausret. May have usurped the throne from Tausret. Did not recognize Siptah or Tausret as legitimate rulers. Possibly a member of a minor line of the Ramesside royal family. Also called Setnakt. ### 1186 BCE Ramesses III Son of Setnakhte. Fought the Sea Peoples in 1175 BC. Possibly assassinated (Harem conspiracy). ### 1155 BCE Ramesses IV Son of Ramesses III. During his reign, Egyptian power started to decline. ### 1149 BCE Ramesses V Son of Ramesses IV ### 1145 BCE Ramesses VI Son of Ramesses III. Brother of Ramesses IV. Uncle of Ramesses V. ### 1137 BCE Ramesses VII Son of Ramesses VI. ### 1130 BCE Ramesses VIII An obscure Pharaoh, who reigned only around a year. Identifiable with Prince Sethiherkhepeshef II. Son of Ramesses III. Brother of Ramesses IV and Ramesses VI. Uncle of Ramesses V and Ramesses VII. He is the sole pharaoh of the Twentieth Dynasty whose tomb has not been found. ### 1129 BCE Ramesses IX Probably grandson of Ramesses III through his father, Montuherkhopshef. First cousin of Ramesses V and Ramesses VII. ### 1111 BCE Ramesses X A poorly documented Pharaoh, his reign was between 3 and 10 years long. His origins are completely uncertain. ### 1107 BCE Ramesses XI Possibly the son of Ramesses X. During the second half of his reign, High Priest of Amun Herihor ruled over the south from Thebes, limiting his power to Lower (Northern) Egypt. He was succeeded in the north by Smendes. # Third Intermediate Period 1077-664 BCE ## Twenty-First Dynasty 1077-943 BCE ### 1077 BCE Nesbanebdjed I (Smendes I) Married to Tentamun, probable daughter of Ramesses XI. ### 1051 BCE Amenemnisu Obscure four-year reign. ### 1047 BCE Pasebakhenniut I (Psusennes I) Son of Pinedjem I, a High Priest of Amun. Ruled for 40 to 51 years. Famous for his intact tomb at Tanis. Known as "The Silver Pharaoh" due to the magnificent silver coffin he was buried in. One of the most powerful rulers of the Dynasty. ### 1001 BCE Amenemope Son of Psusennes I. ### 992 BCE Osorkon the Elder Son of Shoshenq A, Great Chief of the Meshwesh (Libya). Also known as Osochor. ### 986 BCE Siamun Unknown Origins. Built extensively for a third intermediate period Pharaoh. One of the most powerful rulers of the dynasty. ### 967 BCE Pasebakhenniut II (Psusennes II) Unknown Origins. Built extensively for a third intermediate period Pharaoh. One of the most powerful rulers of the dynasty. ### 976 BCE Hemnetjertepienamun Pasebakhaennuit (Psusennes III) Possibly the same person as Psusennes II. Either he or Pinedjem II is generally considered to be the last High Priest of Amun to consider himself as a pharaoh-like figure. ## Twenty-Second Dynasty 943-728 BCE ### 943 BCE Shoshenq I Meriamun Son of Nimlot A, a brother of Osorkon the Elder and a Great Chief of the Meshwesh (Libyans). Possibly the biblical Shishaq ### 922 BCE Osorkon I Meriamun Son of Shoshenq I. ### 887 BCE Shoshenq II Meriamun Obscure pharaoh, possibly a usurper. ### 880 BCE Shoshenq IIb Obscure pharaoh, placement uncertain. Harsiese Meriamun A An obscure rebel, at Thebes. ### 885 BCE Takelot I Meriamun Son of Osorkon I. ### 872 BCE Osorkon II Meriamun Son of Takelot I. ### 837 BCE Shoshenq III Meriamun ### 798 BCE Shoshenq IV Meriamun Sabast Netjerheqaiunu ### 785 BCE Pami Meriamun ### 778 BCE Shoshenq V ### 740 BCE Osorkon IV ## Twenty-Third Dynasty 837-735 BCE ### 837 BCE Takelot II Siesemeriamun Previously thought to be a 22nd Dynasty pharaoh, he is now known to be the founder of the 23rd. ### 826 BCE Meriamun Pedubast I A rebel—seized Thebes from Takelot II. ### 812 BCE Iuput I Meriamun Co-regent with Pedubast. ### 801 BCE Shoshenq VI Meriamun Successor to Pedubast. ### 795 BCE Osorkon III Saisetmeriamun Son of Takelot II; recovered Thebes, then proclaimed himself king. ### 773 BCE Takelot III Meriamun Saisetmeriamun Co-reign with his father Osorkon III for the first five years of his reign. ### 765 BCE Meriamun Rudamun Younger son of Osorkon III and brother of Takelot III. ### 762 BCE Ini Reigned at Thebes only. ## Twenty-Fourth Dynasty 732-720 BCE ### 732 BCE Tefnakhte ### 725 BCE Bakenrenef (Bocchoris) ## Twenty-Fifth Dynasty 744-653 BCE ### 744 BCE Piye King of Nubia; conquered Egypt in his 20th year; full reign at least 24 years, possibly 30+ years ### 714 BCE Shebitku Believed to be Shabaka's successor until the 2010s ### 705 BCE Shabaka Believed to be Shebitku's predecessor until the 2010s ### 690 BCE Taharqa Died in 664 BC ### 664 BCE Tantamani Lost control of Upper Egypt in 656 BC when Psamtik I extended his authority into Thebes in that year. # Late Period 664-332 BCE ## Twenty-sixth Dynasty 664-525 BCE ### 685 BCE Tefnakht II (Stephinates) Manetho's Stephinates. May have been a descendant of the Twenty-fourth Dynasty. The father of Necho I. ### 678 BCE Nekauba (Nechepsos) Manetho's Nechepsos. His existence has been questioned. ### 672 BCE Nekau I (Necho I) Was killed by an invading Kushite force in 664 BC under Tantamani. Father of Psamtik I. ### 664 BCE Psamtik I (Psammetichus I) Reunified Egypt. Son of Necho I and father of Necho II. ### 610 BCE Nekau II (Necho II) Most likely the pharaoh mentioned in several books of the Bible and the death of Josiah. Son of Psamtik I and father of Psamtik II. ### 595 BCE Psamtik II (Psammetichus II) Son of Necho II and father of Apries. ### 589 BCE Wahibre (Apries) Fled Egypt after Amasis II (who was a general at the time) declared himself pharaoh following a civil war. Son of Psamtik II. ### 570 BCE Ahmose II (Amasis II) He was the last great ruler of Egypt before the Persian conquest. According to the Greek historian Herodotus, he was of common origins. Father of Psamtik III. ### 526 BCE Psamtik III (Psammetichus III) Son of Amasis II. Ruled for about six months before being defeated by the Persians in the Battle of Pelusium and subsequently executed for attempting to revolt. ## Twenty-Seventh Dynasty 525-404 BCE ### 525 BCE Kembydjet (Cambyses II) Defeated Psamtik III at the Battle of Pelusium at 525 BC. ### 522 BCE Bardiya (Smerdis) / Gaumata Son of Cyrus the Great. Deriush (Darius I) Ascended throne by overthrowing Gaumata Petubastis III A native Egyptian rebel in the Delta. ### 486 BCE Kheshayarusha (Xerxes I) Assassinated by Artabanus of Persia. ### 480 BCE Psammetichus IV A proposed native Egyptian rebel leader. Exact date uncertain. ### 465 BCE Artabanus the Hyrcanian ### 464 BCE Arutakhshashas (Artaxerxes I) Died in 424 BCE ### 424 BCE Xerxes II A claimant. ### 423 BCE Sogdianus A claimant. ### 423 BCE Darius II Died in 404 BCE ## Twenty-Eighth Dynasty 404-398 BCE ### 404 BCE Amunirdisu (Amyrtaeus) Descendant of the Saite pharaohs of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty; led a successful revolt against the Persians. ## Twenty-Ninth Dynasty 398-380 BCE ### 398 BCE Nefaarud I (Nepherites I) Also known as Nepherites. Defeated Amyrtaeus in open battle and had him executed. ### 392 BCE Hakor (Achoris) Son of Nefaarud I. ### 391 BCE Pasherienmut (Psammuthes) Possibly dethroned Hakor for a year. ### 390 BCE Hakor (Achoris) Retook the throne from Psammuthes. ### 379 BCE Nefaarud II (Nepherites II) Was deposed and likely killed by Nectanebo I after ruling for only 4 months. Son of Hakor. ### 378 BCE Muthis Possible pharaoh attested in Eusebius's epitome; not known archaeologically and his chronological placement is disputed. ## Thirtieth Dynasty 378-340 BCE ### 378 BCE Nekhtnebef (Nectanebo I) Also known as Nekhtnebef. Deposed and likely killed Nefaarud II, starting the last dynasty of native Egyptians. Father of Teos. ### 360 BCE Djedher (Teos) Co-regent with his father Nectanebo I from about 365 BC. Was overthrown by Nectanebo II with the aid of Agesilaus II of Sparta. ### 359 BCE Nakhthorhebyt Merihathor (Nectanebo II) Last native ruler of ancient Egypt to be recognized by Manetho. ## Thirty-First Dynasty 341-332 BCE ### 341 BCE Artaxerxes III Egypt came under Persian rule for the second time. Did not adopt any pharaonic titulary. ### 338 BCE Artaxerxes IV Arses Only reigned in Lower Egypt. Did not adopt any pharaonic titulary. Khababash Rebel pharaoh who led an invasion in Nubia. ### 336 BCE Darius III Upper Egypt returned to Persian control in 335 BCE. His name, _Deriush_, was written in a cartouche as a pharaonic _nomen_ would be. # Greco–Roman Period 332-30 BCE # Hellenistic Period 332-305 BCE ## Argead Dynasty 332-309 BCE ### 332 BCE Aluksindres (Alexander the Great) Formally Alexander III of Macedon conquered Persia and Egypt. ### 323 BCE Pelupuisa (Philip Arrhidaeus) Formally Philip III of Macedon. Mentally disabled half-brother of Alexander the Great. ### 317 BCE Aluksindres (Alexander IV) Formally Philip III of Macedon. Mentally disabled half-brother of Alexander the Great. ## Ptolemaic Dynasty 305-30 BCE ### 305 BCE Ptolemy I Soter Abdicated in 285 BCE ### 284 BCE Ptolemy II Philadelphos ### 277 BCE Arsinoe II Wife of Ptolemy II ### 246 BCE Ptolemy III Euergetes ### 243 BCE Berenice II Wife of Ptolemy II ### 222 BCE Ptolemy IV Philopator Died in unclear circumstances, possibly by fire in the palace or murder. ### 220 BCE Arsinoe III Wife of Ptolemy IV. Murdered. ### 204 BCE Ptolemy V Epiphanes Upper Egypt in revolt 207–186 BCE ### 193 BCE Cleopatra I Syra Wife of Ptolemy V, co-regent with Ptolemy VI during his minority ### 180 BCE Ptolemy VI Philometor Lived under the control of Ptolemy VIII 164 BCE–163 BCE; restored 163 BCE Died 145 BCE ### 175 BCE Cleopatra II Wife of Ptolemy VI. Married Ptolemy VIII around 145 BCE; led revolt against him in 131 BCE and became sole ruler of Egypt. Later reconciled with Ptolemy VIII; co-ruled with Cleopatra III and Ptolemy VIII until 116 BCE. ### 171 BCE Ptolemy VIII Physcon Proclaimed king by Alexandrians in 170 BCE; ruled jointly with Ptolemy VI Philometor and Cleopatra II from 169 to 164 BCE. Restored 145–131 BCE and again in 127 BCE. Died 116 BCE ### 145 BCE Ptolemy VIII Physcon Proclaimed co-ruler by his father; later ruled under regency of his mother Cleopatra II ### 142 BCE Cleopatra III Second wife of Ptolemy VIII. Restored with Ptolemy VIII in 127 BCE; later co-regent with Ptolemy IX and X. Murdered by her own son Ptolemy X. ### 131 BCE Ptolemy Memphites Proclaimed King by Cleopatra II; soon killed by Ptolemy VIII ### 116 BCE Ptolemy IX Soter Died 80 BCE Cleopatra IV Briefly married to Ptolemy IX, but was pushed out by Cleopatra III. Later murdered. ### 110 BCE Ptolemy X Alexander Died 88 BCE ### 81 BCE Berenice III Forced to marry Ptolemy XI; murdered on his orders 19 days later ### 80 BCE Ptolemy XI Alexander Young son of Ptolemy X Alexander; installed by Sulla; ruled for 80 days before being lynched by citizens for killing Berenice III Ptolemy XII Auletes Son of Ptolemy IX; deposed in 58 BCE Reigned briefly with his daughter Cleopatra VII before his death in 51 BCE ### 79 BCE Cleopatra V Tryphaena Wife of Ptolemy XII, mother of Berenice IV ### 58 BCE Cleopatra VI Daughter of Ptolemy XII, but theorised by some Egyptologists to actually be the same person as Cleopatra V. Berenice IV Daughter of Ptolemy XII; forced to marry Seleucus Kybiosaktes, but had him strangled. Joint rule with Cleopatra VI until 57 BCE. ### 52 BCE Cleopatra VII Ruled jointly with her father Ptolemy XII, her brother Ptolemy XIII, her brother-husband Ptolemy XIV, and her son Ptolemy XV. In modern usage, the stand-alone use of "Cleopatra" with no ordinal number usually refers to Cleopatra VII. Committed suicide. ### 51 BCE Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator Brother and first husband of Cleopatra VII ### 48 BCE Arsinoe IV In opposition to Cleopatra VII ### 47 BCE Ptolemy XIV Philopator Younger brother of Cleopatra VII and Ptolemy XIII ### 44 BCE Ptolemy XV Caesar Infant son of Cleopatra VII; aged 3 when proclaimed co-ruler with Cleopatra. Last known ruler of ancient Egypt when Rome took over. ### 30 BCE Egypt became a province of the Roman Republic in 30 BCE Most of this is cited from the wiki below. Better citations will come with time. If needed for clarification on these PLEASE contact me. You can find my discord link / username at [[Welcome Index]] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_pharaohs ## Subjects [[Beginner Bulletin]] [[Heka(Magic)]] [[Myths-Theology]] [[Philosophy-]] [[Society-]] [[Symbolism-OR-Art]] [[Terminology-]] ### [[-Bibliography]] - [[Welcome Index]] [[The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt]] [[Mathematics in Ancient Egypt A Contextual History]] [[Community & Identity in Ancient Egypt Old Kingdom Cemetery at Qubbet el-Hawa]] [[Ancient Egyptian Literature Volume I The Old and Middle Kingdoms]] [[Ancient Egyptian Literature Volume II The New Kingdom]] [[Ancient Egyptian Literature Volume III The Late Period]] [[Dancing for Hathor women in Ancient Egypt]] [[Village Life in Ancient Egypt Laundry Lists and Love Songs]] [[The Literature of Ancient Egypt An Anthology of Stories]] History [[A Spotlight on the History of Ancient Egyptian Medicine]] [[Abydos Egypts First Pharaohs and the Cult of Osiris]] [[Ancient Egyptian Administration]] [[Community & Identity in Ancient Egypt Old Kingdom Cemetery at Qubbet el-Hawa]] [[Diffusion of the Cult of Isis from Egypt Across the Mediterranean World]] [[Egypt of the Saite Pharaohs, 664–525 BC]] [[Land and Taxes in Ptolemaic Egypt An Edition, Translation and Commentary for the Edfu Land Survey (P. Haun. IV 70)]] [[Mathematics in Ancient Egypt A Contextual History]] [[The Oxford Handbook of Roman Egypt]] [[The Priests of Ancient Egypt]] [[The Role of the Egyptian Tradition in the Hellenistic and Roman Periods Ideology, Culture, Identity, and Public Life]] [[Temples, Tombs and Hieroglyphs A Popular History of Ancient Egypt]] [[War and Trade With the Pharaohs An Archaeological Study of Ancient Egypts Foreign Relations]]