# COGNITIVE PROCESSES Recall that the multistore model of memory (see Figure 1) is composed not only of *cognitive structures* (memory), but also *cognitive processes*. A ***cognitive process*** is any of the mental functions assumed to be involved in the acquisition, storage, interpretation, manipulation, transformation, and use of information (knowledge). The most basic and fundamentally important cognitive operational processes include ***attention***, ***perception***, ***encoding***, and ***retrieval***. All of these basic processes play an important role in more complex process, such as problem solving and learning. **Figure 1** *The Multistore Model of Memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968)* ![[__/multistore_model.svg]] ## Attention ***Attention*** is the cognitive process of selectively focusing on one stimulus in the environment while ignoring others. It is impossible to attend to all the stimuli we encounter, so we use attention as a “filter” that allows us to focus on the important stimuli and ignore the rest. Without this ability to actively focus and screen, our lives would be chaotic, inundated by an endless stream of overwhelming stimuli. Attention has two important characteristics: - Attention is a limited cognitive resource in respect to both capacity and duration. - There is a potential for distraction; our attention often wanders from one stimulus to another. Recall [cognitive load theory] which describes our limited amount of cognitive or mental resources. In this model, more difficult tasks require more cognitive resources, making it less likely for us to attend to multiple stimuli. > [!example] Examples > - Consider the person who is driving to work with the radio on while thinking about their “to-do” list for the day. Because each of these tasks, driving, listening to the radio, and planning their day are fairly easy and familiar to them, they are able to attend to all three at once. However, say that same person recently drove into Chicago for the day—a place where they were on less familiar roads with much more traffic than their typical drive. As a result, they needed to turn off the radio and focus their attention on driving. > - Students who are learning new material or reading a difficult passage may need to limit disruptions so they can stay focused. However, when reviewing already learned material, students may be more apt to attend to other stimuli, such as chatting with a friend during class or listening to music while studying. Fairly easy or familiar tasks are considered to use ***automatic processing***, whereas difficult or new tasks require ***effortful processing*** (also known as ***conscious attention***). There are developmental differences with respect to attention: - ***Attentional capacity*** changes throughout childhood and adolescence. ***Selective attention*** is the ability to focus on one stimuli and ignore others. Compared to younger children, older children and adolescents are better able to ignore many distractions that could be present in the classroom or hallway. For example, one study found that kindergarten children learning a science lesson were more distracted, spent less time on-task, and had lower learning scores when the classroom walls were highly decorated than when no decorations were present. - Adolescents are also better than children at ***divided attention*** (the ability to focus on multiple stimuli at once). However, educators should be cautious of students claiming they can "***multitask***." Most often students are not doing two tasks at once but rather are switching their attention back and forth between tasks. This switching is inefficient such that tasks take longer and are completed with more mistakes in both education contexts and everyday applied contexts (e.g., driving and talking on a cell phone). In short, multitasking tends to result in poorer learning and performance. ## Perception ***Perception*** is the cognitive process people use to find meaning in stimuli—that is, the way a person interprets objects and events. Signals in the nervous system result from the stimulation of our sense organs, and that information is passed into the sensory register. Some of that information will be filtered and passed through attention and then to perception and working memory. Perceptions are personally constructed. This has two important implications: - The perception of the same stimulus can differ among people. - Because the knowledge learners construct depends on what they already know, learners’ perceptions will also depend on their prior knowledge, experiences, motivations, and expectations. > [!example] Examples > (full details given in class) > - Brienne and the stop sign with flashing lights—circle or octagon? > - Alexandria’s idiosyncratic association of bees and birthday parties. Alexandria had experiences that her teacher lacked. So, her basic understanding and perception of birthday parties is somewhat different. > - [Ames Window](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DkVOIJAaWO0) > - The tritone paradox http://philomel.com/mp3/musical_illusions/Tritone_paradox.mp3 > - The blind spot illusion Accurate perceptions in learning activities are essential, because students’ perceptions of what they see and hear enter working memory. If these perceptions are inaccurate, the information ultimately stored in long-term memory will also be inaccurate. The primary way to determine if our students accurately perceive the information being presented is simply to ask them. > [!example] Examples > - Say we are teaching geography and are discussing the economies of different countries. We can check students’ perceptions by asking a question, such as “What do we mean by the term economy?” > - Students commonly misperceive questions on homework and tests, which is why discussing frequently missed items and providing feedback is so important. There are two general procedural models: *bottom-up processing* and *top-down processing*. ### Bottom-up processing - Begin interpretation by piecing together specific details in order to experience the whole object. - This is an automatic, unconscious process. > [!example] > Consider how a person recognizes a graphical symbol (glyph) as a particular letter or number, say the number **5**. > The basic components of the glyph are detected by the visual system: > - A horizontal line: $—$ > - A vertical line: $|$ > - A curved line: $⊃$ > > This information is passed along to higher-order processes that identify these as parts of a whole then recognized as the number 5. One way the brain accomplishes this is with neural networks. > [!info] Point of interest: The most recent advances made in artificial intelligence (e.g., ChatGPT) are based upon neural networks. Here is a good video that explains the inner workings of a simple neural network: [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aircAruvnKk](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aircAruvnKk) ### Top-down processing - Begin interpretation by examining context, expectations, or prior knowledge. - This is a conscious process. > [!example] > People often read over major spelling mistakes and still understand the intended meaning of the word and sentence: > > > `Aoccdrnig to a rscheearch at Cmabrigde Uinervtisy, it deosn’t mttaer in waht oredr the ltteers in a wrod are, the olny iprmoetnt tihng is taht the frist and lsat ltteer be at the rghit pclae. The rset can be a toatl mses and you can sitll raed it wouthit porbelm. Tihs is bcuseae the huamn mnid deos not raed ervey lteter by istlef but the wrod as a wlohe.` The example above suggests that what we pay attention to when reading is mostly the first and last letters of a word. However, this does not always work so well, as demonstrated in the following example: > [!example] > > `The pmrie miiestnr olpeny rdueilcis Ldonon myoar oevr leniavg the EU and akctats his leahsedrip aitniboms.` > > (*The prime minister openly ridicules London mayor over leaving the EU and attacks his leadership ambitions*.) Also notice that although there is a distinction between top-down and bottom-up processing, the two processes often work together: bottom-up to first identify letters, top-down to infer word meaning. ## Encoding ***Encoding*** is the process in which information in working memory is transferred to and represented in long-term memory. In other words, encoding is a storage process. This involves the conversion of a sensory input into a form capable of being processed and deposited in memory. Encoding is the first stage of memory processing, followed by retention and then retrieval. ***Meaningfulness*** refers to the extent to which items of information are interconnected. Ideally, the schemas in long-term memory are as meaningful as possible. This means that we want to encode information meaningfully (i.e., as we construct our schemas in working memory, we identify relationships and connections in the information, so these connections exist when we represent the information in our long-term memories). There are various strategies that promote meaningful encoding, such as... - Schema activation - Organization - Elaboration - Imagery ## Retention ***Retention*** refers to the storage and maintenance of a memory. Retention is the second stage of memory, after encoding and before retrieval. ## Retrieval ***Retrieval*** is the cognitive process of locating and pulling information from long-term memory back into working memory. Retrieval is the final stage of memory, after encoding and retention. ### Forgetting #### Interference One explanation for forgetting is ***interference***, which is the loss of information because something learned either before or after detracts from understanding. > [!example] > Students first learn the rule for forming singular possessives by adding an apostrophe s (*'s*) to the singular noun. If their understanding of this rule for forming singular possessives later interferes with learning the rules for forming plural possessives and contractions, or if the rules for forming plural possessives confuse their prior understanding, interference has occurred. Teaching closely related ideas together—such as adjectives and adverbs, longitude and latitude, and adding fractions with similar and different denominators—can help reduce interference. #### Retrieval Failure A second explanation for forgetting is ***retrieval failure***, which is our inability to recall information from long-term memory. > [!example] > A very common example of retrieval failure is when we know a name or a fact, but we simply cannot seem to pull that specific piece of information into our consciousness. ### Important factors in retrieval Retrieval depends on *context* and the way we originally encoded information. > [!example] Examples: > - The context in which we encode the months of the year is chronological, since that is the way we usually encounter them, and remembering them this way becomes automatic. Attempting to state them alphabetically presents a different context and different retrieval challenge. We can do it, but we must laboriously go through the process. > - You may know a person at school, but you cannot remember his name when you see him at a party; his name was encoded in the school context, and you are trying to retrieve it in the context of the party. *Meaningfulness* is the key to retrieval. The more interconnected our knowledge is in long-term memory, the easier it is to retrieve. > [!example] A literature teacher attempted to make information about figurative language meaningful by having his students identify examples in the context of the novel *To Kill a Mockingbird*. In doing so, he capitalized on schema activation and elaboration as encoding strategies. Using these strategies made the information more meaningful, and as a result made retrieval easier. *Practice* to the point of ***automaticity*** also facilitates and enhances retrieval. > [!example] > When math facts and procedures are automatic, students easily retrieve them for use in problem solving, leaving more working memory space to focus on solutions. ## The Levels-of-Processing Model (Craik & Lockhart, 1972) The ***levels-of-processing model*** is the theory that describes memory recall of information as a function of the depth (meaningfulness) of mental processing used in working memory. This theory proposes that encoding into memory and therefore subsequent retention depend on the depth of cognitive *elaboration* that the information receives, and that deeper encoding improves/strengthens memory. ***Elaboration*** is the process of interpreting or embellishing information to be remembered or of relating it to other material already known and in long-term memory. The levels-of-processing model of memory holds that the relative amount of elaboration applied to information as it is processed affects both the length of time that it can be retained in memory and the ease with which it can be retrieved. Depth of processing falls on a continuum from ***shallow*** to ***deep***, and deeper levels of cognitive processing produce more meaningful, detailed, longer-lasting, and stronger memory traces than shallow levels of cognitive processing. - ***Shallow processing*** is cognitive processing of a stimulus (piece of information) that focuses on its superficial, perceptual characteristics rather than its meaning (e.g., the phonemic components of words) leads to a fragile memory trace that is susceptible to rapid decay (loss of information/failure to fully encode a memory). - ***Deep processing*** is cognitive processing of a stimulus (piece of information) that focuses on its more meaningful properties (e.g., semantic and contextual meaning) rather than its superficial, perceptual characteristics. Deep processing results in a more durable memory trace. ### Differences with the conventional multistore model This theory contradicts the multistore model of memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin) which represents memory strength as being continuously variable, the assumption being that rehearsal always improves long-term memory. The level-of-processing model suggests that rehearsal consisting of simply repeating previous processing (maintenance rehearsal) does not enhance long-term memory. ### Implications for education The level-of-processing theory has several important implications for education, influencing how instruction is designed and delivered to maximize student learning and memory retention. Educators should design activities and assessments that encourage deep processing of information. This can include critical thinking exercises, discussions that explore concepts in depth, applying knowledge to new situations, synthesizing information across sources, and reflecting on personal experiences related to the content. A few general pedagogical strategies based on this theory are given in Table 1. **Table 1** *General Strategies for Using the Level-of-Processing Model in Education* | Strategy | Details | | ------------------------------------ | ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | | Use Meaningful Contexts | Presenting information in meaningful contexts helps students process information more deeply. Relating new information to students’ prior knowledge, current events, real-world applications, or personal experiences can enhance understanding and retention. | | Promote Active Learning | Active learning strategies such as problem-solving tasks, group projects, and case studies require students to engage with material at a deeper level, processing and applying information rather than passively receiving it. | | Emphasize Conceptual Understanding | Instead of focusing solely on rote memorization, educators should emphasize understanding the underlying concepts and principles. Teaching strategies that foster understanding and application of concepts can lead to deeper processing and better long-term retention. | | Integrate Varied Forms of Processing | Incorporating a variety of instructional methods (e.g., visual, auditory, kinesthetic) can cater to different learning styles and encourage students to process information in multiple ways, deepening their understanding. | | Encourage Elaboration | Asking students to elaborate on new information by explaining it in their own words, connecting it with what they already know, or teaching it to others can enhance deep processing. This could involve reflective writing, discussions, or peer teaching activities. | | Use of Metacognitive Strategies | Teaching students to be aware of their own cognitive processes (metacognition) and to use strategies such as self-questioning, summarizing, and predicting can encourage deeper processing and self-regulated learning. | | Feedback for Deep Engagement | Providing timely and specific feedback that encourages students to think critically about their responses and how they can improve promotes deeper engagement with the material. | By applying these implications in educational settings, educators can enhance students' learning experiences and outcomes. The level-of-processing theory underscores the importance of how information is engaged with and suggests that teaching strategies that promote deep, meaningful engagement with content are likely to be the most effective for long-term learning and memory retention. %% # PROSPECTIVE MEMORY %% # METACOGNITION A very special type of process within the information-processing model is *metacognition*. ***Metacognition*** is an executive cognitive process that regulates cognition. Metacognition is commonly described as “thinking about thinking” or “knowing about knowing.” There are two important aspects of metacognition: ***meta-attention*** and ***metamemory***. ***Meta-attention*** is a person’s knowledge and regulation of their own attention. > [!example] > You knew that your drowsiness in a class immediately after lunch may affect your ability to pay attention. So, you purposefully regulated your attention by drinking coffee or sitting near the front of the class. ***Metamemory*** is the knowledge and regulation of memory strategies. > [!example] Examples: > - You have likely heard someone say, “Wait... Let me write some of this down, so I’ll remember it better.” This person has realized that they needed to write down some information because that will improve encoding and increase learning. (Of course, it also provides them with a hard copy for later in case they forget.) > - We have all experienced the [*tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon*](https://dictionary.apa.org/tip-of-the-tongue-phenomenon). Metacognition explains a variety of actions in our everyday lives—we have knowledge about the limitations of our memories, and we regulate our cognitive processes with various strategies. > [!example] Examples: > - Virtually everyone prepares lists when grocery shopping. > - Some of us know that we is likely to misplace our keys (knowledge of cognition), so we may always immediately puts them in a desk drawer when we comes in from the garage (regulation of cognition). > - A person who realizes that he sometimes forgets important dates like his wedding anniversary and kids’ birthdays may put them on his computer calendar with an alert as a reminder. ## Educational Research on Metacognition A great deal of research on metacognition and teaching practices designed to improve students’ metacognitive abilities has been conducted. This research suggests that teaching all students to be metacognitive is important. Further, it may be even more important with low-ability learners than with their higher ability peers. Meta cognition is also a useful tool outside of learning and teaching. It can be used to deal with emotional issues, such as stress, negative thinking, and worry in both adults and children. This research has produced four general findings that are relevant in education: - **Metacognition plays an essential role in classroom learning.** Metacognitive awareness “drives effective study behavior and can improve cognition without significant increases in work or effort.” In other words, teaching our students to be metacognitive is essentially teaching them to work smarter not harder. - **Metacognition depends on task difficulty.** When tasks are difficult, the cognitive load on working memory may be too great to allow effective metacognitive monitoring. This suggests that we need to help students break difficult tasks down into manageable parts so they can employ metacognitive strategies. - **In general, neither students (including college students) nor adults are particularly good at metacognitive monitoring**. However, metacognition can be improved significantly by directly teaching and modeling metacognitive skills. - **Metacognition is relatively independent of general academic ability**. Realizing that attention to a task is essential does not depend on ability, and with this realization students are more likely to create personal learning environments free of distractions (e.g., moving to the front of the class or turning off a cell phone and TV while studying at home). ## Developmental Differences in Metacognition As we would expect, young learners’ metacognitive abilities are limited. For instance, young children are often unaware of the need to pay attention in learning activities, whereas their older counterparts are more likely to realize that attention is important and can better direct it to learning tasks. With teacher support, however, even young children quickly become more strategic about their learning. Students as early as the third grade can be taught metacognitive learning strategies. However, they do tend to sometimes be overconfident and overestimate their cognitive abilities, particularly when tasks are challenging. More sophisticated metacognition, such as using advanced encoding strategies like organization, elaboration, and imagery, often begin to appear in early adolescence, advance with age, and then level off in adulthood. In spite of these developmental differences, older learners and even some college students are not as metacognitive about their learning as they should be. So, even middle- and high-school students will still need a great deal of guidance and support to develop their metacognitive abilities. # EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONS Metacognition and executive functions are closely related cognitive processes, but they have distinct characteristics and differences. Metacognition refers to an individual’s ability to reflect on and regulate their own thinking processes. It involves monitoring our own cognitive activity, such as attention, memory, and comprehension, and making adjustments as needed to improve our learning or problem-solving. In contrast, ***executive functions*** (also known as ***cognitive control***) refers to a set of cognitive processes that are involved in goal-directed behavior, including working memory, cognitive flexibility, inhibitory control, and planning and organization. These processes are largely responsible for regulating our thoughts and actions in order to achieve our goals. While both executive functioning and metacognition involve cognitive control, they are distinct processes. Executive functioning is more focused on the regulation of behavior, while metacognition is more focused on the regulation of cognition. However, they are closely related and can influence each other, particularly in situations that require complex problem-solving or decision-making. ## Distinctions between executive functions and metacognition - Metacognition is the ability to reflect on and regulate one's own cognitive processes, such as attention, memory, and comprehension. Executive functioning, on the other hand, refers to a set of cognitive processes involved in goal-directed behavior, such as working memory, inhibitory control, and planning and organization. - Metacognition is more focused on the regulation of cognition, while executive functioning is more focused on the regulation of behavior. - Metacognition involves the monitoring of one's own cognitive activity, whereas executive functioning involves the regulation of behavior to achieve goals. ## Similarities between executive functions and metacognition - Both metacognition and executive functioning involve cognitive control and are important for successful learning and problem-solving. - Both processes are interconnected and can influence each other in situations that require complex decision-making or problem-solving. - Both metacognition and executive functioning develop over time and can be improved through training and practice.