[[North Carolina]] | [[Tennessee]] | [[Virginia]] | [[South Carolina]] | [[Georgia (USA)]] | [[Alabama]] | [[USA]] ## Ethnically Cleansed Despite Assimilation The **Cherokee Nation** (ᏣᎳᎩ ᎠᏰᎵᏍᏛᎢ, _Tsalagihi Ayeli_) is one of the largest Native American tribes in the United States, with approximately 400,000 enrolled members today. Historically, the Cherokee inhabited the southeastern United States - present-day North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Tennessee, Alabama, and Kentucky - with a sophisticated civilization that predated European contact by thousands of years. The Cherokee developed written language (Sequoyah's syllabary in 1821), established constitutional government (Cherokee Constitution of 1827), published newspapers, operated schools, and had complex agricultural and economic systems. Despite adopting many aspects of European-American culture in attempts to coexist with white settlers - earning designation as one of the "Five Civilized Tribes" - the Cherokee were forcibly removed from their ancestral lands by the U.S. government in the 1830s through the **Trail of Tears**, a genocidal forced march that killed approximately 4,000-8,000 Cherokee people. Today there are three federally-recognized Cherokee governments: the **Cherokee Nation** (Oklahoma, largest with 400,000+ members), the **United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians** (Oklahoma), and the **Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians** (North Carolina, descendants of those who hid in the mountains during removal). ## Pre-Contact Cherokee Civilization **The Territory**: Before European contact (early 1500s), Cherokee territory covered approximately 140,000 square miles across the southeastern United States: - The Appalachian Mountains (their heartland) - River valleys in present-day Tennessee, Georgia, North Carolina, South Carolina - Parts of Virginia, Kentucky, Alabama, and West Virginia **The Population**: Estimates vary, but pre-contact Cherokee population was likely 50,000-100,000 people - one of the largest Native populations in eastern North America. **The Social Structure**: - **Seven Clans**: Cherokee society organized around seven matrilineal clans (Bird, Deer, Wolf, Blue, Red Paint, Wild Potato, Long Hair). Children belonged to mother's clan. - **Towns**: Cherokee lived in towns of 200-600 people, with dozens of towns across the territory. Each town had significant autonomy. - **Matrilineal Society**: Inheritance and clan membership passed through mothers. Women owned property (houses, agricultural land) and had significant political voice. - **Consensus Government**: Town councils made decisions through consensus. There was no centralized Cherokee "king" or dictator - power was distributed. **The Economy**: - **Agriculture**: Cherokee were sophisticated farmers growing corn, beans, squash ("three sisters"), sunflowers, and other crops. Women controlled agriculture. - **Hunting**: Men hunted deer, bear, elk, turkey, and other game. Deerskins became major trade commodity after European contact. - **Trade Networks**: Cherokee participated in extensive trade networks across eastern North America, exchanging goods, ideas, and culture with other tribes. **The Religion and Culture**: - Complex spiritual beliefs involving balance between physical and spiritual worlds - Sacred sites throughout Cherokee territory (mountains, rivers, caves) - Sophisticated oral traditions preserving history and knowledge - Elaborate ceremonies and rituals marking seasons and life events ## European Contact and the Deerskin Trade (1500s-1700s) **First Contact** (1540): Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto encountered Cherokee during his expedition through the Southeast. This contact brought diseases (smallpox, measles, influenza) that devastated Native populations. **The Epidemics**: European diseases killed 50-90% of Cherokee population between 1540s-1700s. Entire towns were wiped out. This demographic collapse weakened Cherokee society and made resistance to European encroachment more difficult. **British Trade** (1670s-1770s): British colonists established trade relationships with Cherokee, particularly trading manufactured goods (guns, metal tools, cloth) for deerskins. **The Deerskin Economy**: By 1700s, deerskin trade dominated Cherokee economy: - Cherokee hunters killed millions of deer to supply skins for European markets - Deerskins were processed into leather for gloves, boots, and other goods in Europe - Cherokee became dependent on European manufactured goods (guns, metal tools) - The overhunting depleted deer populations, damaging Cherokee food sources **The Cultural Impact**: Trade with Europeans transformed Cherokee society: - Introduction of firearms changed warfare and hunting - Metal tools replaced stone and wood implements - European cloth replaced traditional Cherokee clothing for many - Alcohol (rum, whiskey) was introduced, causing social problems - Some Cherokee began keeping African slaves, adopting white Southern practices ## The Revolutionary War and Cherokee-American Conflicts (1776-1794) **Cherokee Alliance with Britain**: During Revolutionary War, most Cherokee sided with British against American colonists. Reasons: - Americans were encroaching on Cherokee land; British promised to protect Native territories - Cherokee chief Dragging Canoe led resistance against American settlement **American Retaliation**: American forces conducted brutal campaigns against Cherokee towns: - Burned Cherokee villages, destroyed crops, killed civilians - Forced Cherokee to cede large land areas through treaties - Drove Cherokee deeper into mountains and reduced their territory **The Chickamauga Wars** (1776-1794): Dragging Canoe led Cherokee resistance from Chickamauga towns (present-day Chattanooga area). The U.S. eventually crushed this resistance through military force. **The Land Cessions**: Through various treaties forced on Cherokee after Revolutionary War and subsequent conflicts, Cherokee lost most of their original territory by 1819: - Treaty of DeWitt's Corner (1777): Ceded South Carolina lands - Treaty of Long Island (1777): Ceded lands in Virginia and Tennessee - Treaty of Holston (1791): Major land cession in Tennessee - Multiple other treaties through early 1800s ## The "Civilization Program" and Cherokee Adaptation (1800s-1820s) **U.S. Government Policy**: Starting in 1790s-1800s, U.S. government implemented "civilization program" - attempting to transform Native Americans into Christian farmers who would assimilate into white society and voluntarily cede "surplus" land. **Cherokee Response**: Rather than resisting through warfare (which had failed), Cherokee leadership decided to adapt to white American culture to prove they could coexist: **Agricultural Transformation**: - Cherokee adopted European-style farming (individual family farms replacing communal agriculture) - Cleared forests and established plantations - Some wealthy Cherokee owned slaves and operated plantations like white Southerners - Built mills, ferries, and other economic infrastructure **Education**: - Established schools teaching English and academic subjects - Invited Christian missionaries to open schools and churches - Cherokee children learned to read and write in English - Literacy rates among Cherokee eventually exceeded literacy rates among white Southerners **Christianity**: Many Cherokee converted to Christianity (Baptist, Methodist, Presbyterian), though traditional Cherokee religion persisted alongside Christianity for others. **Government Reform**: - Established centralized Cherokee government replacing town-by-town autonomy - Created Cherokee National Council and executive positions - Adopted written laws and legal code **Economic Development**: - Cherokee built substantial wealth through farming, trade, and business - Towns like New Echota (Cherokee capital in Georgia) had brick buildings, stores, and infrastructure comparable to white towns ## Sequoyah and the Cherokee Syllabary (1821) **Sequoyah** (c.1770s-1840s): Cherokee silversmith and inventor who created the Cherokee syllabary - a writing system for the Cherokee language. **The Innovation**: Between approximately 1809-1821, Sequoyah developed a syllabary of 85-86 characters representing all syllables in Cherokee language. Unlike alphabet (where each symbol represents a sound), syllabary has symbols representing complete syllables. **The Impact**: Within a few years, thousands of Cherokee learned to read and write Cherokee: - Cherokee Nation had higher literacy rate than white population in surrounding states - Cherokee wrote letters, kept records, published documents in their own language - The syllabary preserved Cherokee language and culture **The Cherokee Phoenix** (1828): Cherokee Nation established _The Cherokee Phoenix_ (_ᏣᎳᎩ ᏧᎴᎯᏌᏅᎯ_) - a bilingual newspaper printed in Cherokee and English. It was edited by **Elias Boudinot** (Cherokee) and printed news, laws, and literary content. The newspaper was used to argue against Cherokee removal and communicate with the American public. ## The Cherokee Constitution (1827) **The Document**: In 1827, Cherokee Nation adopted a written constitution modeled on the U.S. Constitution, establishing: - Three branches of government (executive, legislative, judicial) - Principal Chief elected by National Council - National Council (legislature) with representatives from districts - Judicial system with courts and written laws - Definition of Cherokee citizenship and territory **The Purpose**: The constitution was designed to demonstrate Cherokee were "civilized" nation capable of self-government and deserving of recognition as sovereign nation within Cherokee territory. **The Georgia Reaction**: Georgia was furious. The Cherokee Constitution claimed sovereignty over Cherokee territory within Georgia's borders. Georgia refused to recognize Cherokee sovereignty and began passing laws asserting jurisdiction over Cherokee lands. ## Andrew Jackson and the Indian Removal Policy (1829-1830) **Andrew Jackson** (President 1829-1837): Jackson was Indian fighter who'd fought Cherokee and other tribes before becoming president. He was committed to removing all Native Americans from eastern states to open land for white settlement. **The Political Context**: - Georgia, Alabama, Tennessee, North Carolina, and Mississippi wanted Cherokee lands for white settlement - Gold was discovered on Cherokee land in Georgia (1829), intensifying white greed - Cotton plantation economy was expanding and wanted Cherokee land - States passed laws declaring Cherokee governments illegal and Cherokee people subject to state law **The Indian Removal Act** (May 28, 1830): Jackson pushed through Congress the Indian Removal Act authorizing the President to negotiate treaties moving eastern Native tribes west of the Mississippi River to "Indian Territory" (present-day Oklahoma). **The Vote**: The Act passed narrowly - 28-19 in Senate, 102-97 in House. It was extremely controversial even at the time. **The Legal Framework**: The Act theoretically required "voluntary" treaties with tribes. In practice, U.S. government used bribery, threats, fraud, and force to obtain removal treaties. ## Cherokee Resistance and Worcester v. Georgia (1832) **The Legal Strategy**: Cherokee Nation hired lawyers and pursued legal challenges to removal: **Cherokee Nation v. Georgia** (1831): Cherokee sued Georgia for passing laws violating Cherokee sovereignty. Supreme Court ruled 5-4 that Cherokee were "domestic dependent nation" but couldn't sue states in federal court. Chief Justice John Marshall's opinion was contradictory - recognizing Cherokee as nation but denying them legal standing. **Worcester v. Georgia** (1832): Samuel Worcester (missionary living in Cherokee Nation) was arrested by Georgia for refusing to take oath of allegiance to Georgia. Worcester sued. **The Ruling**: Supreme Court ruled 5-4 in favor of Worcester, with John Marshall writing that: - Cherokee Nation is sovereign nation - Georgia laws have no force within Cherokee territory - Only federal government, not states, can regulate relations with Cherokee - Worcester's arrest was illegal **Jackson's Response**: Jackson reportedly said "John Marshall has made his decision, now let him enforce it." Jackson refused to enforce the Supreme Court ruling and allowed Georgia to ignore it. **The Constitutional Crisis**: Worcester v. Georgia should have protected Cherokee sovereignty. Jackson's refusal to enforce Supreme Court ruling was constitutional crisis - the President openly defying the judiciary. Congress did nothing. Georgia continued asserting jurisdiction over Cherokee lands. ## The Treaty of New Echota (1835): The Fraudulent Treaty **The Ridge-Boudinot-Watie Faction**: A small minority of Cherokee led by **Major Ridge**, his son **John Ridge**, and **Elias Boudinot** (editor of Cherokee Phoenix) concluded removal was inevitable and negotiated with U.S. government. **The Treaty**: In December 1835, this minority faction signed the **Treaty of New Echota** agreeing to Cherokee removal in exchange for $5 million and land in Indian Territory (Oklahoma). **The Problem**: - The treaty was signed by about 100 Cherokee out of 16,000-17,000 total Cherokee population - The signers had no authority to represent Cherokee Nation - Principal Chief **John Ross** and the overwhelming majority of Cherokee rejected the treaty - The U.S. government negotiated with people it knew didn't represent Cherokee Nation **The Petition**: Chief John Ross collected petition with 15,000+ Cherokee signatures (nearly all Cherokee) rejecting the Treaty of New Echota and asking Congress to reject it. **The Senate Vote**: Despite the petition and clear evidence the treaty didn't represent Cherokee will, the U.S. Senate ratified the Treaty of New Echota by one vote (31-15, just barely the required 2/3 majority). **The Cherokee Law**: Under Cherokee law, signing away tribal land without authorization was punishable by death. The Ridge-Boudinot-Watie faction knew they were violating Cherokee law and would be considered traitors. ## The Trail of Tears (1838-1839) **The Deadline**: The Treaty of New Echota gave Cherokee two years to voluntarily move to Oklahoma. The deadline was May 1838. By that date, only about 2,000 Cherokee (mostly the Ridge faction) had moved. The vast majority (16,000+) refused to go. **General Winfield Scott**: In May 1838, General Winfield Scott arrived with 7,000 U.S. Army troops to enforce removal. **The Roundup** (May-June 1838): - Soldiers went to Cherokee homes, farms, and towns - Cherokee were given minutes to gather belongings before being forced from homes at gunpoint - Families were separated - Cherokee were confined in stockades (concentration camps) in terrible conditions while removal was organized **The Conditions**: - Stockades were overcrowded, unsanitary, with inadequate food and water - Diseases (dysentery, measles, whooping cough) spread rapidly - Hundreds died in the stockades before removal even began **The Forced March** (August 1838 - March 1839): - Cherokee were forced to march approximately 1,000 miles from the Southeast to Oklahoma - Some groups traveled by boat, but most marched overland - The journey took place through fall, winter, and early spring - Cherokee had inadequate clothing, food, and shelter for the journey **The Death Toll**: - Estimates vary: 4,000-8,000 Cherokee died (out of 16,000+ removed) - Deaths from disease, exposure, starvation, and exhaustion - Elderly, children, and sick people were most vulnerable - Many died in the stockades before removal began - Many died along the trail - Many died shortly after arriving in Oklahoma from disease and malnutrition **The Name**: Cherokee call this _Nunna daul Tsuny_ ("The Trail Where They Cried"). White Americans called it the "Trail of Tears." **The Theft**: While Cherokee were removed: - White settlers looted Cherokee homes - Georgia held lotteries distributing Cherokee land to white citizens - Cherokee farms, businesses, and property were stolen - Gold mines on Cherokee land were seized ## The Aftermath and Assassination of the Ridge Faction (1839) **Arrival in Oklahoma**: Surviving Cherokee arrived in Indian Territory (Oklahoma) to find: - The land already occupied by "Old Settler" Cherokee (those who'd moved west earlier) - The Ridge faction already established - Limited resources and infrastructure - Conflicts over leadership and governance **The Executions** (June 22, 1839): Cherokee who'd remained loyal to John Ross and opposed removal executed the Ridge faction for their role in signing the Treaty of New Echota: - **Major Ridge**: Ambushed and shot to death - **John Ridge**: Dragged from his home and stabbed to death in front of his family - **Elias Boudinot**: Killed with tomahawk while helping build house **The Justification**: Under Cherokee law, the executions were legal punishment for the capital crime of unauthorized land cession. The Ridge faction had known this was the consequence. **Stand Watie**: John Ridge's brother **Stand Watie** survived the executions and later became Confederate general during Civil War, leading Cherokee who sided with Confederacy. **The Civil War Division**: Cherokee Nation split during Civil War: - John Ross faction reluctantly sided with Confederacy (initially tried to remain neutral) - Stand Watie faction actively fought for Confederacy - Some Cherokee sided with Union - Cherokee fought Cherokee during the war **Post-Civil War Punishment**: After Union victory, U.S. government punished Cherokee (and other "Five Civilized Tribes") for Confederate alliance by forcing more land cessions and allowing railroads through Cherokee territory. ## The Eastern Band: Those Who Stayed **The Refugees**: During removal, approximately 1,000-1,500 Cherokee hid in the mountains of North Carolina: - Some fled into remote areas where soldiers couldn't find them - **Tsali** and other Cherokee resisted capture; Tsali was eventually executed but his resistance bought time for others - **William Holland Thomas** (white trader who'd been adopted by Cherokee) helped some Cherokee acquire North Carolina citizenship, exempting them from removal **The Eastern Band**: These Cherokee who remained in the East became the **Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians**: - Purchased land in North Carolina (the Qualla Boundary) - Maintained separate identity from Cherokee Nation in Oklahoma - Currently have approximately 16,000 enrolled members - Operate Harrah's Cherokee Casino (major revenue source) ## Rebuilding in Oklahoma (1840s-1900s) **The Reconstruction**: In Oklahoma, Cherokee rebuilt: - Established new capital at Tahlequah (still the capital today) - Rebuilt school system (Cherokee Nation operated more schools than Oklahoma territorial government) - Published newspapers in Cherokee and English - Operated businesses, farms, and ranches - Maintained tribal government **The Tribal Territory**: Cherokee Nation territory in Oklahoma was approximately 7 million acres - a fraction of their original southeastern territory. **The Land Rush and Allotment**: In late 1800s, U.S. government opened Indian Territory to white settlement: **The Curtis Act** (1898): Abolished tribal courts and governments, preparing for Oklahoma statehood. **The Dawes Act and Allotment** (1887-1914): Federal government broke up communally-held Cherokee land: - Each Cherokee citizen received individual land allotment (typically 160 acres) - "Surplus" land was sold to white settlers - This destroyed Cherokee communal land ownership - Much Cherokee land was lost through fraud, tax sales, and predatory practices **The Dawes Rolls**: Government created rolls of Cherokee citizens for allotment purposes. These rolls remain controversial - they included Cherokee by blood but excluded some Cherokee and included people claiming Cherokee heritage with little documentation. ## Termination Era and Tribal Sovereignty (1900s-1970s) **The Termination Policy** (1940s-1960s): U.S. government attempted to "terminate" tribal governments and force Native assimilation. Cherokee Nation governance was suppressed though never formally terminated. **Principal Chief Appointed**: From 1906-1971, Cherokee Principal Chief was appointed by U.S. President rather than elected by Cherokee people. **The Self-Determination Era** (1970s-present): U.S. policy shifted to support tribal self-governance: - 1971: Cherokee elected Principal Chief W.W. Keeler (first election since 1906) - 1975: Cherokee adopted new constitution - 1980s-present: Cherokee Nation rebuilt governance, economy, and services ## Modern Cherokee Nation (1980s-Present) **The Size**: Cherokee Nation is largest Native American tribe: - Over 400,000 enrolled citizens (as of 2024) - Jurisdiction over 14-county area in northeastern Oklahoma (7,000 square miles) - Not a reservation (land ownership is mix of Cherokee Nation, individual Cherokee, and non-Cherokee) **The Government**: - Principal Chief (currently Chuck Hoskin Jr., elected 2019) - Deputy Chief - Tribal Council (17 members from districts) - Judicial branch - Operates like state government within Cherokee Nation jurisdiction **The Economy**: - Cherokee Nation Businesses operates casinos, hotels, and other enterprises (primary revenue source) - Annual budget: approximately $2.6 billion (2024) - Employs over 11,000 people (one of largest employers in Oklahoma) - Provides healthcare, education, housing, and social services to citizens **Language Preservation**: - Cherokee Nation operates language programs teaching Sequoyah's syllabary - Immersion schools teaching children in Cherokee language - Relatively few fluent speakers remain (estimated 2,000-3,000) - Intensive efforts to prevent language extinction **The Cherokee Phoenix**: Relaunched in 1970s, now published online. ## The Freedmen Controversy **Cherokee Slaves**: Some Cherokee owned African slaves before Civil War (adopting white Southern practice). **The Treaty of 1866**: After Civil War, Cherokee were forced to sign treaty granting Cherokee citizenship to freed slaves ("Cherokee Freedmen"). **The Exclusion**: In 1980s-2000s, Cherokee Nation moved to exclude Freedmen descendants from citizenship, arguing only people with Cherokee blood should be citizens. **The Lawsuits**: Freedmen sued, arguing Cherokee Nation violated 1866 treaty. **The Resolution**: In 2017, Cherokee Nation Supreme Court ruled Freedmen have citizenship rights under 1866 treaty. Currently about 2,800-3,000 Freedmen descendants are Cherokee citizens. **The Racism**: The controversy exposed anti-Black racism within Cherokee Nation - many Cherokee wanted to exclude Freedmen to maintain racial purity, despite Freedmen families having been part of Cherokee Nation for 150+ years. ## The Three Cherokee Governments **Cherokee Nation** (Oklahoma): Largest with 400,000+ citizens, headquartered in Tahlequah, operates throughout northeastern Oklahoma. **United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians** (Oklahoma): Approximately 14,000 citizens, descended from Cherokee who were full-blood and opposed allotment. Federally recognized since 1946. **Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians** (North Carolina): Approximately 16,000 citizens, descended from Cherokee who avoided removal. Own Qualla Boundary (56,000 acres) in North Carolina mountains. **The Relationship**: The three governments are separate and don't always agree on policy, but maintain cultural and historical connections. ## Why the Cherokee Nation Matters **The Genocide**: The Trail of Tears was genocidal ethnic cleansing - forcibly removing entire people from ancestral lands, killing thousands in the process, because white Americans wanted their land and gold. **The Betrayal**: Cherokee did everything white Americans demanded - adopted European agriculture, Christianity, written language, constitutional government, schools - and were removed anyway. This proved assimilation wouldn't protect Native peoples from white land hunger. **The Precedent**: Cherokee removal established precedent that treaties with Native nations were worthless and federal government would violate its own laws to benefit white settlers. This pattern repeated with every Native tribe. **The Survival**: Despite genocide, land theft, cultural suppression, and termination policies, Cherokee Nation survived and today thrives with 400,000+ citizens, robust government, and strong cultural identity. **The Legal Legacy**: Cherokee Nation cases (Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, Worcester v. Georgia) established foundational principles of tribal sovereignty in U.S. law, even though those principles were immediately violated. **The Constitutional Crisis**: Andrew Jackson's refusal to enforce Worcester v. Georgia demonstrated President could defy Supreme Court without consequence, weakening separation of powers. **The Economic Theft**: Removal transferred millions of acres and massive wealth from Cherokee to white Americans through state-sanctioned theft. This wealth transfer enriched white Georgians, Alabamians, and Tennesseans while impoverishing Cherokee. **The Cultural Resilience**: Cherokee maintained language, governance, and cultural identity through 200 years of suppression, proving cultural genocide ultimately fails when people resist. **Modern Sovereignty**: Cherokee Nation today demonstrates how tribal governments can exercise sovereignty, operate successful economies, and provide services while navigating complex relationship with federal and state governments.