%% ### Todo - [x] Review Seel - [ ] Process *Learning and Memory* - [ ] Ch 5: Reinforcement - [ ] Ch 6: Reinforcement applications - [ ] Ch 7: Punishment - [ ] Ch 8: Theories of reinforcement - [ ] Review https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operant_conditioning - [ ] Add to Anki - [ ] Integrate with *Mechanisms of learning* notes %% In instrumental (or operant) conditioning, **behavior changes as a function of its consequences** — that is, the environmental changes that follow the behavior (Seel, 2012). In other words, instrumental conditioning is based on a **feedback loop** between a behavior and its consequences. It involves learning the relationship between the two, which allows the organism to make better [[Prediction beats reaction|predictions]] and adjust its behavior to bring about more desirable consequences — i.e., to receive rewards and avoid punishments (Polk, 2018). Instrumental conditioning is sensitive to **context** (Polk, 2018): A behavior that is rewarded in a certain context will be performed more often in that context. The opposite is true for a behavior that is punished; it will be avoided in the context in which it was punished. Thus, instrumental conditioning involves learning a **three-way association between the behavior, the consequences, and the context**. This context-dependency is necessary to meet the demands of a complex world (Seel, 2012). For **example**, if a parent praises (i.e., rewards) their child each time the child eats their vegetables, the child is more likely to eat their vegetables in the future. Instrumental conditioning is a type of **[[Associative learning involves learning the relationship between two events that occur together|associative learning]]**, which itself is a form of [[Implicit learning is characterized by more unconscious and unintentional operations|implicit learning]]. Instrumental conditioning is distinct from **[[Classical (or Pavlovian) conditioning involves learning the relationship between two stimuli|classical conditioning]]** (Lieberman, 2021): - Classical conditioning associates an *involuntary or reflexive behavior* with a stimulus. It focuses on what *precedes* the behavior. For example, the flashing of a light is followed by the administration of a shock, which triggers a reflexive aversive reaction. - Instrumental conditioning associates a *voluntary or intentional behavior* with a consequence of that behavior. It focuses on what *follows* the behavior. For example, touching a hot pan is followed by a burning sensation in the hand. ### Key terms The following terms are often used in the context of instrumental conditioning (Lieberman, 2021; Polk, 2018; Seel, 2012): - **[[Reinforcement]]**: Something desirable is happening as a consequence of a behavior. It leads to an increase in the probability of that behavior — i.e., a *strengthening of a response*. For example, a child gets a piece of chocolate each time it completes their homework. - **[[Punishment]]**: Something undesirable is happening as a consequence of a behavior. It leads to a decrease in the probability of that behavior — i.e., a *weakening of a response*. For example, a child who burns their tongue on a hot beverage learns to avoid that behavior. - **Positive**: Something is being added. - **Negative**: Something is being subtracted. The two axes of reinforcement vs. punishment and positive vs. negative lead to the following **four types of instrumental conditioning**: - Positive reinforcement - Negative reinforcement - Positive punishment - Negative punishment %% ### Phenomena (Lieberman, 2021; Polk, 2018) *What are the observable events and characteristics?* ### Principles (Lieberman, 2021) *What determines how strongly a response will be conditioned?* ### Mechanism (Lieberman, 2021) *What are the underlying processes that lead to the conditioned response?* ### Applications (Lieberman, 2021) *What are some important aspects of our behavior that conditioning affects?* %% ### Adaptive significance *What is the [[What is the evolutionary function of learning?|adaptive evolutionary significance]] of instrumental conditioning?* Instrumental conditioning allows organisms to selectively interact with the stimuli in their environment to **maximize benefit and minimize harm**, and thus maximize their chances of [[Organisms have evolved to maximize their chances of survival and reproduction|survival and procreation]] (Skora et al., 2020). The selective interaction is based on learning the **predictive relationships** between behaviors and the stimuli (or consequences) that follow them (Lieberman, 2021). This benefit is available to organisms that have the **capacity for flexible behaviors** — i.e., behaviors that aren't [[There's a continuum between determining a system's architecture at the start and letting the environment mold the system|genetically pre-programmed]] but modifiable by the organism's environment. We can call these behaviors "voluntary." Note that this doesn't mean that the organism has some sort of "free will"; it's just that the organism's behavior is more flexible in the face of changing circumstances rather than genetically hard-wired. Such behavioral capacities need to be **tailored to the organism's environment** by some [[What are the mechanisms of learning and how do they work?|mechanism]] to ensure the organism's successful [[Evolutionary fitness refers to how many offspring an individual has that grow up to reproduce themselves|adaptation]]. In other words, this mechanism needs to ensure that the organism engages in activities that increase its adaptation and avoids activities that decrease it. Instrumental conditioning describes one such mechanism (or set of mechanisms). The mechanism itself is arguably genetically pre-programmed. However, the results that the mechanism produces depend on the particular experiences of the organism in its particular environment. This design is more successful than complete genetic pre-programming if the organism lives in a [[A complex and volatile environment requires organisms to adjust themselves to survive and procreate|complex and volatile world]]. --- Created: [[2023-01-24]] Type: #permanent Topics: [[Learning (Index)]] Related notes: - [[What are the different types of learning?]] - [[Associative learning involves learning the relationship between two events that occur together]] - [[Classical (or Pavlovian) conditioning involves learning the relationship between two stimuli]] - [[Observational R-S learning]]