# **Overview:** #### **James K. Polk <> 1845-1849 (11th President)** - **Good:** - **Tariff of 1846** - {*1846*} - For context, Since the 1820s, tariffs had been a divisive issue with Whigs, and before them the National Republics, supporting high protective tariffs with the goal of sheltering American industry. Democrat's, especially from the South and West, favored lower tariffs, arguing they unfairly benefited Northern manufacturers at the expense of farmers and consumers. The previous Tariff of 1842 had raised rates and restored protectionism. Polk, a committed Jacksonian Democrat, believed in low tariffs, hard money, and minimal government intervention. This new Tariff reduced average tariff rated from about 32% to 25%, replaced a complicated and uneven system of specific duties where the tariff was applied by unit to a simpler revenue-based system where it was placed on the cost which simplified things heavily. It also focused on raising revenue, not protecting industry. Economically in the short-term it didn't crash industry as Whigs feared. Instead, it actually increased revenue due to booming trade, especially with Britain. Long-term it marked the beginning of a free trade era in U.S. tariff policy that lasted until the Civil War. It aligned with Democratic economic philosophy and Polk's broader vision of a lean federal government. Overall a very successful economic policy with no downsides only positives.) - **Independent Treasury Law** - {*1846*} - (For context, under Jackson the Second Bank of the U.S. was killed, and federal funs were scattered into "pet banks." van Buren responded with the Independent Treasury System in 1840 -- a network of government-run depositories that held federal funds in specie and kept them out of private banks. The Whigs repealed it in 1841 in favor of returning to state bank reliance with the goal of a national bank. Polk, a hard-money Democrat and Jacksonian loyalist, revived it in 1846, despite strong Whig opposition. It created a network of federal vaults, sub-treasuries, and depositories where government revenue would be stored. Separated government finances from private banks, elimination middlemen. Required most payments to and from the government to be made in specie, not paper banknotes. The Treasury Department handled all disbursements directly, without relying on private institutions. Polk's goal was to prevent corruption and favoritism, protect federal funds from speculative bubbles or banking collapses, and ensure that the federal government's budget remained independent from fluctuations in the banking sector. In the short term, it was a fiscally responsible move that stabilized government finances. In the long term, it created the model for a federal treasury system that remained until the Federal Reserve was established in 1914. It was a clear win for hard-money Democrats who distrusted centralized banking. Whigs and business interests opposed it because it removed government deposits from the banking system which tightened credit and also because it reflected a distrust of paper currency and the banking class. Critics said it sucked liquidity out of the economy during times it needed stimulation -- but it reduced speculation risk, which had fueled past panics. Overall a smart move and though we needed a national bank which is what the Whigs wanted this was a step in the right direction due to how poor pet banks were.) - **Slightly Good:** - **Economy** - {*1845-1849*} - (This was a time of rapid growth, driven by trade, land acquisition, and internal demand. Polk's fiscal and monetary policy was tightly aligned with Jacksonian ideals with policies such as the Tariff of 1846, the revival of the independent treasury system and his refusal to revive a national bank. During his presidency federal revenue surged due to the Tariff of 1846, the U.S. ran a budget surplus nearly every year of his term, public land sales increased dramatically due to western migration and anticipation of new territories post-war, and inflation remained low, and gold discoveries in California [just after his term] were beginning to fuel massive economic expansion. However, his opposition to infrastructure spending meant federal investment in internal improvements was minimal. This left states and private companies to fill in gaps. Overall a solid economy that's only flaw was his refusal to fund internal improvements and or consider a national bank meant growth was uneven and couldn't get past the good economies and into the great economies.) - **Neutral/Mixed:** - - **Slightly Bad:** - **Oregon Treaty** - {*1846*} - (For context, for decades the Oregon Territory [roughly modern-day Oregon, Washington, Idaho, and parts of Montana and British Columbia] was jointly occupied by the U.S. and Britain. The slogan “Fifty-Four Forty or Fight!” became popular among expansionists who wanted the U.S. to claim all the land up to the southern border of Alaska [54°40’]. Polk campaigned on this aggressive stance but was always more focused on California and the Southwest. Britain didn’t want war -- and neither, realistically, did Polk while he was preparing for conflict with Mexico. Signed in June 1846, the treaty set the U.S.--British boundary at the 49th parallel, which is still the border today. Britain retained all of Vancouver Island. The treaty avoided war, ended decades of ambiguity, and gave the U.S. full control of the Oregon Territory south of the 49th parallel. This treaty avoided a second war with Britain which would have been disastrous since we were already getting ready for war with Mexico. The problem with the treaty is that it was very expansionist with the ideas of Manifest Destiny and Westward Expansion written all over it and all at the cost of the Native Americans. I should mention that I do prefer this to the Louisiana Purchase due to its diplomatic benefits, but I can't ignore the true goals behind it.) - **Bad:** - **Polk Orders Taylor to the Rio Grande** - {*1845-1846*} - (The moment that sparked the Mexican-American War. For context, after Texas was annexed by the U.S. [signed under Tyler, but inherited by Polk], border disputed immediately flared up between the U.S. and Mexico. Texas claimed the Rio Grande as its southern boundary, but Mexico insisted the border was the Nueces River, much farther north. At this point, no formal war had been declared, and diplomatic negotiations were ongoing [though failing]. Polk ordered General Zachary Taylor to move hi forces from Fort Jesup in Louisiana to Corpus Christi, and later to the Rio Grande, placing them in disputed territory that Mexico still claimed as its own. In early 1846, Taylor's army crossed the Nueces and camped across from Matamoros, a Mexican city -- which was interpreted by Mexico as an act of military provocation. Shortly after, Mexican troops attacked a U.S. patrol, giving Polk justification to declare that "American blood [was] shed on American soil". This was a calculated move by Polk to provoke a conflict that he could spin as defensive. Polk's ultimate goal was the acquisition of California and the Southwest -- and he knew war would make that possible. Critics at the time [like Lincoln] accused Polk of deliberately manufacturing the war, calling it unconstitutional and unjust. This was a clear provocation in disputed territory. It undermined diplomacy, inflamed anti-war opposition, and set a precedent for executive military overreach. It's one of the clearest examples of aggressive expansionism veiled as defense. 11 American soldier were killed in the event and 6 were wounded. Overall an expansionist and anti-diplomatic plot that caused 11 American soldiers to die at the cost of Polk's plan.) - **Mexican-American War** - {*1846-1848*} - (For context, this was sparked by territorial disputed after the U.S. annexed Texas in 1845 and Mexico still considered Texas part of its territory and rejected the Rio Grande as the southern border [preferring the Nueces River instead]. Polk sent Zachary Taylor into the disputed zone, leading to the April 1846 skirmish, which Polk used to declare war. Congress then authorized the war on May 13, 1846. Taylor's campaign in northern Mexico won major victories at Palo Alto, Resaca de la Palma, Monterrey and Buena Vista. Winfield Scott's expedition took Veracruz and marched to Mexico City, which fell in September 1847. Stephen Kearny and john C. Frémont helped capture California, and the U.S. occupied New Mexico with little resistance. With the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo the war had come to an end. The U.S. gained 525.000 square miles of territory. This fulfilled Manifest Destiny which had been coined during Polk's term. It secured valuable ports and future economic engines like San Francisco. It was an enormous strategic victory with limited American losses. Sounds great right? No. The war was provoked deliberately not defensively. It was a completely immoral and unjust with clear Manifest Destiny and expansionist ideas in mind. Overall a terrible look for Polk, who provoked the war making it unjust and the only true reason we were fighting was because we wanted land and didn't care at whose cost.) - **Veto of River and Harbors Bill** - {*1846*} - (For context, Congress passed a bill in 1846 allocating $500,000 for improving rivers, harbors, and waterways across several states -- particularly in the Great Lakes region and along the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers. These improvements were supported by Whigs and many Western Democrats who believed in federally funded infrastructure to stimulate commerce and safety. Polk vetoed the bill even though it had broad support. Polk believed the Constitution did not authorize federal spending on internal improvements unless they were strictly for national defense or foreign commerce. In his veto message, he said these river and harbor projects were local or regional, and funding them would lead to an "endless system of internal improvements" and "patronage and corruption". He thought states or private enterprise -- not the federal government -- should fund and manage local projects. This reflects his Jacksonian Democrat roots, in contrast to the Whig belief in a strong federal role in infrastructure. His veto angered many in the North and West, especially in states like Illinois, Ohio and Michigan, where river transport was crucial. It hurt his popularity in those regions and fueled the growing sense that Polk and Southern Democrats were blocking Northern economic development while pushing territorial expansion that favored the South like Texas and the war with Mexico. Overall a rough move especially since I am someone who generally dislikes people who have a strict interpretation of the constitution.) - **Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo** - {*1848*} - (For context, by early 1848, U.S. forces had occupied Mexico City, and the war was winding down. Mexico was devastated, politically unstable, and in position to resist U.S. terms. Polk initially wanted more territory, possibly all of Mexico's north [including Baja California], but eventually accepted the treaty negotiated by Nicholas Trist, who defied Polk's recall order and independently concluded negotiations. The key parts of the treaty were things such as territorial cession which Mexico ceded 500,000 square miles of territory -- about half of its national land -- including California, Nevada, Utah, most of Arizona and New Mexico, and parts of Colorado and Wyoming. the U.S. paid $15 million to Mexico and agreed to assume $3.25 million in American citizens' claims against the Mexican government. Mexico officially recognize the Rio Grande as the southern border of Texas. The treaty promised to respect property rights, citizenship eligibility, and religious freedom of Mexicans in ceded lands. In reality, many of these protections were ignored or poorly enforced over time. this fulfilled Polk's expansionist goals and complete Manifest Destiny from coast to coast. the end do not justify the means though and this was acquired through a corrupt and unjust war that was our fault. You also can't justify expansionism at the cost of groups of people. This was very imperialist and also set the stage for sectional conflict. Overall a terrible and gross treaty showing the worst that Polk had to offer.) ###### **Conclusion:** An expansionist who at his best had strong economic policy with a strong economy due to the reintroduction of the Independent Treasury System and the Tariff of 1846. While at his worst he had one of the worst imperialist and expansionist moves in U.S. History with the Mexican-American War and everything that arose from it. ###### **Final Rating:** **2.5/10**