# Building the Intentional University  ## Metadata - Author: [[Stephen M. Kosslyn, Ben Nelson, and Bob Kerrey]] - Full Title: Building the Intentional University - Category: #books ## Highlights - Each of the next four chapters addresses a different one of our four “cornerstone” courses. Chapter 5, “Multimodal Communications and Effective Communication,” explains how we teach students to communicate effectively, drawing on material from rhetoric, linguistics, philosophy, history, literature, psychology, neurobiology, and design theory. Chapter 6, “Formal Analyses and Critical Thinking,” focuses on a set of critical thinking abilities, namely, those that stem from logic, statistics, algorithmic thinking, and decision science. In this seminar students learn to identify and debunk logical fallacies, to use statistics effectively, and to use formal tools (e.g., those of game theory) to make decisions. Chapter 7, “Empirical Analyses and Creative Thinking,” explains how this seminar introduces the scientific method as a framework for conceiving how to make new discoveries and solve problems. The course strives to instill a deep understanding of how evidence is used creatively to generate hypotheses, test hypotheses, draw conclusions, recognize biases, and develop novel solutions and designs. Chapter 8, “Complex Systems and Effective Interaction,” describes how this course leads students to understand key characteristics of complex systems and then apply those insights. Most social systems are complex systems, and students learn to apply their understanding of complex systems to social interactions, including interactions that emerge from or are associated with ethical conflicts, debate, negotiation, and leadership. ([Location 354](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=354)) - Tags: [[pink]] - critical thinking, creative thinking, effective communication, and effective interactions. ([Location 463](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=463)) - Tags: [[pink]] - Concentrations often investigate topics at different levels of analysis (e.g., in the natural sciences such concentrations are molecules and atoms, cells and organisms, and earth’s systems) or are associated with distinct research approaches (e.g., data-intensive, theoretical, or applications-oriented approaches). ([Location 470](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=470)) - Tags: [[pink]] - They design a research project under the guidance of a faculty advisor and—if necessary—a content expert. (2) In their senior year, students will identify four topics of interest that stem from their concentration(s). We then will identify three students with overlapping interests and pair them with an appropriate professor. The four of them will then design a syllabus, and the students take the course. Depending on their major(s), students may take up to four such courses. (3) Finally, students may select major core or concentration courses outside their major and take these courses as electives, ([Location 475](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=475)) - Tags: [[pink]] - The science of learning addresses ways in which humans perceive, organize, and store information and then subsequently retrieve that information from memory. A trove of useful discoveries is freely available in professional journals, and many books have been written that distill this knowledge. We have organized this literature into sixteen distinct principles (described in chapter 11), ([Location 495](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=495)) - Tags: [[pink]] - In Minerva’s radically flipped classroom we moved both the homework and the knowledge dissemination to before class and reserved class time for using the information in various ways (e.g., solving problems, role playing, debating). ([Location 510](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=510)) - Tags: [[pink]] - Class sessions at Minerva do not focus on information transmission but rather on learning to use information in different ways. To ensure that students are fully engaged, we have developed special engagement techniques that require students to pay attention. For example, we warn students at the outset of an activity that they will be expected at the end to compare and contrast the different positions that were discussed (see chapter 12). ([Location 514](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=514)) - Tags: [[pink]] - Many citizens of a given country believe that universities should help their country compete on the world stage. Universities fulfill this part of their mission in two ways. First, they educate professionals who are needed to meet the needs of society, such as dentists, social workers, accountants, and architects. Second, universities educate decision makers who are expected to lead the country to a better future, such as politicians, business people, journalists, scientists, and inventors. ([Location 541](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=541)) - Tags: [[pink]] - Practical knowledge is knowledge one can use to adapt to a changing world, which allows one to achieve one’s goals. ([Location 666](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=666)) - Tags: [[pink]] - Habits of mind are cognitive skills that with practice come to be triggered automatically. ([Location 815](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=815)) - Tags: [[pink]] - For example, one habit of mind we teach is “Tailor oral and written work for the context and the audience.” ([Location 820](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=820)) - Tags: [[pink]] - Exactly how you should tailor your work to a particular context and audience depends on a variety of factors, such as your goal, what the audience already knows, what the audience is interested in, and how much time you have to present. ([Location 824](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=824)) - Tags: [[pink]] - For example, another habit of mind we teach is “Distinguish between categories and types of information to determine source quality.” The condition is that one is confronted with different types of information and needs to determine which ones are most trustworthy; the action is to favor the most trustworthy sources when using the information. ([Location 827](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=827)) - Tags: [[pink]] - For example, one foundational concept we teach requires students to distinguish between correlation and causation. ([Location 837](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=837)) - Tags: [[pink]] - For example, another foundational concept we teach is “Apply algorithmic strategies to solve real-world problems.” ([Location 853](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=853)) - Tags: [[pink]] - Example (H): “Identify and analyze premises and conclusions.” Evaluating claims, writing cogently, speaking persuasively, and debating effectively are related: all demand an understanding of how arguments work, along with the ability to dissect and analyze the arguments of others while using valid reasoning in one’s own arguments. To analyze arguments, one must identify and analyze the premises and how they are related to the conclusions. ([Location 919](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=919)) - Tags: [[pink]] - Example (C): “Describe interactions among events or characteristics at different levels of analysis to interpret phenomena.” Depending on the question one is asking, a different level of analysis may be appropriate for the answer. For instance, the insurance adjuster seeking the cause of a house fire will not be interested in principles of combustion but rather may focus on a resident’s habit of leaving burning candles unwatched. Any event or system can be understood at multiple levels of analysis, and it is appropriate to focus on different levels for different purposes. ([Location 928](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=928)) - Tags: [[pink]] - Example (H): “Consider different types of future costs and benefits for all stakeholders.” When making decisions, one must always consider trade-offs between future costs and benefits from the different perspectives of all stakeholders. ([Location 941](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=941)) - Tags: [[pink]] - Example (H): “Characterize the nature of the problem.” The first step to solving a problem is to characterize exactly what the problem is. This may sound obvious, but is often ignored—people jump right into trying to solve a problem before they fully understand what it is. Characterizing the nature of the problem requires specifying the goals, the obstacles that stand between the starting situation and the goals, the constraints on possible solutions (such as limited funds), and the size of the problem. Different types of solutions are appropriate for problems that arise at different scales. ([Location 956](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=956)) - Tags: [[pink]] - Example (C): “Evaluate the link between initial data collection and subsequent hypothesis-driven research.” Scientific research begins with observations, which then must be organized to suggest underlying patterns of regularity. Such patterns in turn suggest theories and accompanying hypotheses about the nature of the factors that may give rise to these patterns in the data. These hypotheses can then be tested. This cycle of observing, theorizing, formulating hypotheses, collecting data to test hypotheses, revising the theory and then generating and testing new hypotheses characterizes science and is often referred to as the scientific method. ([Location 976](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=976)) - Tags: [[pink]] - Example (C): “Identify and apply constraint satisfaction as a way to solve problems.” Obstacles often cannot be overcome easily, in large part because there are constraints on what sorts of actions are possible or realistic. ([Location 989](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=989)) - Tags: [[pink]] - Example (C): “Identify gaps (in knowledge, in market offerings, in a range of ideas) that reveal where a creative solution is required.” A creative solution is required only when a previous effective solution does not exist. Thus the first step in producing a new product, process, or service is recognizing that one is required. This ability requires recognizing when existing plausible solutions are inadequate. ([Location 1005](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=1005)) - Tags: [[pink]] - Example (H): “Tailor oral and written work for the context and the audience.” Different audiences have different background knowledge, interests, goals, worldviews, and perspectives. To communicate effectively, one must recognize such characteristics of an audience and other factors (such as your goals and the amount of time you have), and tailor one’s writing and speaking accordingly. The same message can be delivered in many ways, and these different ways will be more or less effective for different audiences. Application example: You present a new product to the board of directors of the company. The directors are not interested in the technical details of the product but want a quick summary of its functionality, potential revenue, and how long it will take to become profitable. You present it to the engineers, and they want the technical details of the product and any potential problems that might arise in manufacturing. You present it to the sales staff, and they want to hear about the most novel and noteworthy features of the product. In presenting the product to different audiences you will need to adjust both the content and the way you present, including the length of your presentation, to communicate effectively what each audience wants and needs to know. ([Location 1019](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=1019)) - Tags: [[pink]] - Example (H): “Apply principles of perception and cognition in oral and multimedia presentations and in design.” A large body of research has documented many aspects of human perception and cognition, resulting in a set of principles that captures how humans organize and interpret what they see and hear. Illustrations—in published works as well as presentations and video—will communicate effectively only if they respect these principles. Similarly, objects that invite specific uses must be designed to communicate those uses clearly. Application example: You watch people leave a building. More than half of them try to pull open the doors, but the doors are designed to be pushed outward as you exit. You look carefully at the door handles and see that they are identical to the ones on the outside of the doors—which clearly invite being pulled. You realize that the shape of the handles, with their round contour and open space that a hand could easily slide behind, implies that they should be pulled. This is the wrong message to be conveyed when the door should be pushed open. ([Location 1032](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=1032)) - Tags: [[pink]] - Example (H): “Prepare multidimensional best alternatives to a negotiated agreement (BATNAs).” Negotiating is partly an art, but it is also informed by empirical findings and best practices. One best practice is to have well-defined BATNAs when going into a negotiation. Each BATNA specifies what a person or party will do if negotiations fail. The key is to develop attractive alternatives in advance and to know when they outweigh specific possible outcomes from a negotiation. This practice entails preparing more than one BATNA and ordering them according to different dimensions—which will be more or less relevant, depending on how a situation evolves. ([Location 1048](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=1048)) - Tags: [[pink]] - Example (H): “Learn to assign team roles appropriately, which requires being sensitive to the nature of the task and to the nature of specific types of roles.” Leaders must recognize that each of us has different cognitive, metacognitive, and social strengths and weaknesses. ([Location 1060](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=1060)) - Tags: [[pink]] - Example (H): “Evaluate ethical dilemmas, framing the dilemma in a way that will help resolve it.” Ethical dilemmas often hinge on discovering what course of action will be the most fair for the most stakeholders (which typically are people, but may also be corporations, animals, plants, and the environment more generally) while at the same time not undermining accepted social rules or mores (including the rule of law). ([Location 1076](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=1076)) - Tags: [[pink]] - To encourage both near and far transfer, we grade students on how effectively they use HCs in new contexts, well after the HCs are introduced. In fact, students are graded on how well they use and transfer HCs in every course they take during their last three years in the program. ([Location 1116](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=1116)) - Tags: [[pink]] - I have noted only a small sampling of the HCs that currently constitute the core of the Minerva curriculum (for a list of the full set, see appendix A). ([Location 1128](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=1128)) - Tags: [[pink]] - 11 The Science of Learning: Mechanisms and Principles ([Location 3226](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=3226)) - Tags: [[pink]] - Definition: Learning is active to the extent that it engages the cognitive processes associated with comprehension, reasoning, memory, and pattern perception. ([Location 3623](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=3623)) - Tags: [[pink]] - The prototype activities in our initial lesson plans drew from various approaches in active learning (Barr, 2013), including peer instruction (Mazur, 1997a; Mazur, 1997b; Crouch & Mazur, 2001), collaborative work in small breakouts (Macpherson, 2015), debates (Kennedy, 2007), Socratic method discussion (Faust & Paulson, 1998), task- or problem-based learning (Allen & Tanner, 2007), role-playing (Deneve & Heppner, 1997), and game-based activities (Lepper & Cordova, 1992). ([Location 3691](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=3691)) - Tags: [[pink]] - use a type of flipped classroom, in which information acquisition (readings, watching videos, etc.) takes place primarily before class and class time is devoted to learning to use the information in various ways. ([Location 3832](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=3832)) - Tags: [[pink]] - #perceptualbias. The concept itself—that our expectations influence our perceptions—is not complicated, but neither is it especially resonant for students with little or no training in psychology. A great example of the phenomenon is the checkershadow illusion, ([Location 4146](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=4146)) - Tags: [[pink]] - #correlation, which includes both the mathematical calculation of correlation and learning the essential distinction between correlation versus causation. To vividly illustrate the distinction, professors might mention that the divorce rate in Maine is strongly correlated (r = 0.9926) with the per capita consumption of margarine (Vigen, ([Location 4150](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=4150)) - Tags: [[pink]] - One seminal piece that inspired us was Bloom’s “2 Sigma Problem” (Bloom, 1984), which found that one-to-one tutorials offered a two standard deviation improvement in learning over traditional classroom instruction, a conclusion that has subsequently been buttressed by many other studies (e.g., Freeman et al., 2014). Recognizing the exorbitant cost of scaling an education system based purely on personal tutoring, Bloom posed a challenge: How might we approximate this impressive gain using an alternative form of instruction that would be economically viable at scale? He proposed and evaluated one such alternative, mastery learning, ([Location 4376](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=4376)) - Tags: [[pink]] - the material at hand. And, last but not least, our students engage in deep learning that can only be achieved in an environment that facilitates and augments human coaching. The result is that we achieve our last design principle: be meaningful. ([Location 4665](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=4665)) - Tags: [[pink]] - noted in chapters 11 and 12, a significant body of literature indicates that active learning techniques are highly effective. Many approaches to student engagement have been described (Barr, 2014). They include peer instruction (Mazur, 1997), work in small breakout groups (Macpherson, 2015), debates (Kennedy, 2007), Socratic discussion (Faust & Paulson, 1998), task- or problem-based learning (Allen & Tanner, 2007), role-playing (DeNeve & Heppner, 1997), and game-based activities (Lepper & Cordova, 1992). ([Location 4826](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=4826)) - Tags: [[pink]] - Table 17.1. Mastery Rubric Template ([Location 5108](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=5108)) - Tags: [[pink]] - Collegiate Learning Assessment is a performance-based measure of critical thinking, analytical reasoning, and writing ability; this test has been widely used to assess learning on college campuses, ([Location 5244](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=5244)) - Tags: [[pink]] - we administered two other assessments, the California Critical Thinking Skills Test and the California Critical Thinking Disposition Inventory. ([Location 5261](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=5261)) - Tags: [[pink]] - being unconventional, being human, being confident, being thoughtful, being selective, being authentic, and being driven (see appendix B). ([Location 5455](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=5455)) - Tags: [[pink]] - To summarize, the Minerva application focuses on three broad areas: (1) the student’s personal achievements outside a structured academic environment, (2) the student’s past academic performance, and (3) the student’s performance on assessments that reveal his or her capabilities and characteristics in greater depth than is evident in the other materials. ([Location 5935](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=5935)) - Tags: [[pink]] - 23.1. The Minerva Community Manifesto, v3 ([Location 6545](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=6545)) - Tags: [[pink]] - addition, we have grouped students into supper clubs, groups where students form organic friendships and which also become the learning units where we teach social and emotional learning and Minerva’s seven character outcomes: curiosity, empathy, resilience, focus, collaboration, initiative, and respect. ([Location 6863](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=6863)) - Tags: [[pink]] - There are four kinds of accreditation: regional, national faith-based, national career-related, and programmatic. ([Location 7199](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=7199)) - Tags: [[pink]] - In other countries, research activities are supported directly through government funding and grants, which provides a clearer accounting of the costs of education at universities. This is what allows elite British universities such as Cambridge to be clearheaded about the costs of undergraduate education, which they estimate to be about $25,000 per year. They acknowledge that 60 percent of this cost is covered by tuition and the balance comes from other university income sources, including overhead from research grants. This procedure stands in contrast to the $100,000 or more that elite American universities claim as the costs of undergraduate education, which clearly includes many costs not related to education per se. ([Location 7546](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=7546)) - Tags: [[pink]] - These data have led us to define four types of core competencies the students should develop in order to succeed in a wide variety of disciplines. Two of these competencies center on personal abilities: thinking critically (evaluating claims, analyzing inferences, weighing decisions, and analyzing problems) and thinking creatively (facilitating discovery, solving problems, and creating products, processes, and services). The other two competencies center on interpersonal abilities: communicating effectively (using language effectively, using nonverbal communication effectively) and interacting effectively (negotiating, mediating, and persuading; working effectively with others; resolving ethical dilemmas and having social consciousness). ([Location 7784](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=7784)) - Tags: [[pink]] ### Ch11 ## New highlights added July 20, 2023 at 5:58 PM - 11 The Science of Learning: Mechanisms and Principles Stephen M. Kosslyn The science of learning encompasses findings in a wide range of areas, including discoveries about how humans perceive, organize, and store information and then subsequently retrieve that information from memory. We’ve learned a tremendous amount about how humans process and store information, and that knowledge can be used systematically in education to help students master the material they are taught. Oddly, although the science of learning matured decades ago, it is rarely used to facilitate teaching. Instead, most classes are taught using methods that were developed over a thousand years ago. Walk into any university and you are more likely than not to see a “sage on the stage”: a faculty member at the front of the class and rows of students dutifully putting in their time by sitting in class (some listening, some taking notes, but many doing e-mail, monitoring Twitter, or surfing the web). To my knowledge, Minerva is the only institution to use the science of learning systematically in all aspects of the curriculum. Lectures are a common way to teach, but we need to distinguish between teaching and learning. Teaching focuses on information transmission; learning is about knowledge acquisition. On the face of things, the two activities should be completely aligned, but typically they are not. Teaching is often done in a way that is convenient and efficient for the professor, with little thought given to how best to facilitate student learning. Lectures are a superb way to teach: a single instructor can lecture to ten thousand people as easily as to ten. But ([Location 3226](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=3226)) - Tags: [[orange]] - study after study has documented that lectures are a terrible way for students to acquire information (let alone to acquire deep knowledge, which requires not just learning information but also gaining an understanding of its broader context and utility). For example, consider a meta-analysis of 225 studies of how well students learn from lectures versus active-learning seminars (Freeman et al., 2014). This review was restricted to STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) courses, which presumably are among the most challenging offered to undergraduates. The results were dramatic. The authors reported the following: The studies analyzed here document that active learning leads to increases in examination performance that would raise average grades by a half a letter, and that failure rates under traditional lecturing increase by 55% over the rates observed under active learning. The analysis supports theory claiming that calls to increase the number of students receiving STEM degrees could be answered, at least in part, by abandoning traditional lecturing in favor of active learning … . (p. 1) Finally, the data suggest that STEM instructors may begin to question the continued use of traditional lecturing in everyday practice, especially in light of recent work indicating that active learning confers disproportionate benefits for STEM students from disadvantaged backgrounds and for female students in male-dominated fields. (p. 4) Although these statements are from just one meta-analysis, the same conclusions have been reached repeatedly, and for non-STEM courses as well as STEM courses. Without question, active learning is better than passive listening to lectures. Why, then, are lectures still the dominant mode of teaching in most universities? Part of the problem may be that those doing the teaching do not understand enough about the science of learning to take advantage of it. This is not to suggest that other problems are not also prevalent, such as the economics of universities, incentive ([Location 3240](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=3240)) - Tags: [[orange]] - structures, and institutional rigidity, but certainly most faculty who care about being effective instructors would benefit from a more thorough understanding of the science of learning. In this chapter, I provide a very brief overview of the key principles of the science of learning I have gleaned from the empirical literature. I summarize two overarching principles (which I call “maxims”) and then consider sixteen specific principles that fall under them. At the outset, I should note that different reviewers have organized the literature differently, producing different numbers of principles. For example, Graesser, Halpern, and Hakel (2008) identify twenty-five principles, whereas Willingham (2009) identifies only nine. The differences appear to arise primarily from what principles are considered special cases or variants of other principles. In what follows, I’ve chosen a level of granularity that easily maps into active learning exercises that can be used in the classroom (see chapter 12). Distinctions and Purposes Before we start, I need to make several distinctions and background assumptions clear. Important distinctions First, “learning” is the process of acquiring information, of picking it up and storing it mentally. In contrast, “memory” refers to previously acquired information that has been stored, and… ([Location 3256](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=3256)) - Tags: [[orange]] - Second, it is useful to distinguish between two different sorts of memories: Dynamic memories exist only as long as they are actively maintained. In contrast, structural memories persist even when they aren’t being actively considered. Here’s a metaphor: imagine that someone is trying to remember the shape of a four-sided geometric form. To do so, she walks along a path she creates on a lawn, in the shape of the form. She walks this path over and over. While she is walking, the representation of the shape is dynamic; it depends on her continued movement. If she stops walking, the representation is lost. But after a while she wears a dirt path through the lawn. Once this happens, it no longer matters whether she keeps walking. She can stop slogging along the path and the shape will persist. At this point the representation has transitioned from being dynamic to being structural. A comparable distinction exists in the brain; for learning to be useful, it must engender structural changes that will endure over time. Third, it is useful to distinguish between two different types of learning. On the one hand, we learn declarative information—such as vocabulary words, addresses, concepts, and theories. On the other hand, we learn procedural information—such as how to drive a car, how to negotiate, how to debate, and how to use the rules of grammar in speaking a second language. The following principles typically should be applied in different orders when learning the different types of information. For example, mastery of underlying rules may be more important when acquiring procedural knowledge than when acquiring declarative knowledge, and hence underlying rules should be introduced early in the process to help students form a mental model of what they should do. But in all cases, I claim, the… ([Location 3272](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=3272)) - Tags: [[orange]] - Purposes of the principles The principles I describe below are intended to accomplish three aims: First, we can draw on many of them to lead students to learn even if they do not intend to do so. This is a remarkable discovery: people often learn not (or not only) through intention but simply as a consequence of using information. An example is recalling at the end of the day what you did from the time you woke up in the morning—what conversations you had, the details of a newspaper article you read, and so on. How much of that material did you consciously try to remember? Very little, I would wager. Second, by repeatedly relying on the principles I summarize below, you can transition from doing something consciously to doing it automatically. When you learned to drive a car, for example, at first it was extremely laborious. Your driving instructor told you what to do, and you did your best to follow instructions. But with practice, you soon could do those things without consciously thinking about them. Third, these principles can help learners apply what they learned to all relevant contexts. This is a challenge because people transfer what they have learned in one context to a novel context only with effort (see chapters 2 and 3). And the more dissimilar the new context is to the one… ([Location 3290](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=3290)) - Tags: [[orange]] - Maxims We can organize the principles of learning under two umbrella “maxims,” as summarized in the following. Maxim I: “Think it through” The first maxim is “Think it through.” The key idea is very simple: the more you think something through, paying attention to what you are doing, the more likely you are later to remember it. This maxim is at the core of your ability to recall facts and figures from a newspaper article you read, even though you didn’t try to memorize them. You stored the material in memory simply because you paid attention and thought it through. Incidental learning is learning that occurs without consciously trying to acquire the knowledge; it occurs as a by-product of the cognitive processing that is used to understand, analyze, or synthesize. As you read through the list of specific principles below, you may notice something that is conspicuously absent—any mention of motivation as a principle. I’ve often encountered admonitions to “find out what the students are interested in, and play to those interests.” But the evidence suggests that the key is to get the students engaged. They might get engaged because they are motivated to do so or… ([Location 3305](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=3305)) - Tags: [[orange]] - Maxim II: “Make and use associations” The second maxim is “Make and use associations.” Associations not only help us organize material so that it is easy to store in memory, they also give us the hooks that will allow us later to dig the material out of memory, to recall it. A dramatic demonstration of the power of using associations to organize material was reported by Ericsson, Chase, and Faloon (1980). They asked an undergraduate student to commit to coming into the lab at least three times per week, and he did so for about a year and a half. At each session, the researchers simply read him a sequence of random digits, one digit per second, and asked him to repeat them back. They started with a single digit, which he correctly recalled. They then gave him two other randomly selected digits, which he recalled, and then three, and so on, increasing the length of each new list until he failed to recall the entire sequence (eight digits, on that first day). Each session began where the previous one had left off, with a new list of that length (with a new combination of random digits). Every set consisted of a new set of digits; he wasn’t given practice learning the same set over and over. When the study finally ended, this participant could recall a list of seventy-nine random digits! How did he do this? As it happened, the participant in the study was a long-distance runner who had run numerous marathons. He associated the random digits with times for particular segments of races. For example, if he heard “3, 4, 9, 2,” he might associate these digits with the time, “3 minutes, 49.2 seconds.” Thus, four digits were converted to a single “chunk” (i.e., an organized unit) using associations.… ([Location 3319](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=3319)) - Tags: [[orange]] - The game of charades illustrates this process in slow motion. For example, say that the presenter gets down on all fours and moves around like an animal. The players might shout “a cat,” “a dog,” “a donkey.” The position is a cue, which activates these concepts. The presenter then sticks her fingers up from her forehead, mimicking horns. Someone says “a deer,” someone else says “a goat.” The presenter then stands up and mimics having a cape with an animal running by—leading the viewers to shout out “a bull!” Each cue evokes specific associations, which in turn retrieve certain information from memory. This process of being cued to recall specific information happens all of the time, every day, virtually every time we recall something. Sixteen Specific Principles Now to the specific principles that underlie these two overarching maxims. I used three criteria to select and formulate these principles: First, the principle could not be explained by appeal to other principles; it had to describe how a distinct type (or types) of cognitive processing contribute to learning. Second, the principle must have been derived from highly replicable studies that demonstrated large effects on learning. Third, the principle must have straightforward implications for instruction; how to implement it in practical situations must be clear. In what follows, I provide very brief… ([Location 3335](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=3335)) - Tags: [[orange]] - Lockhart, 1972). This is the most obvious implication of the maxim “Think it through.” For example, if you formulate an example of how every one of these principles can be used in a specific situation, you will remember them much better than if you simply read and understand them. Using desirable difficulty. We can think of this as the Goldilocks rule (not too hot, not too cold—just right!). Learning is best when the task is not so easy as to be boring but not so hard as to be over the learner’s head (Bjork, 1988, 1999; VanLehn et al., 2007). To get the most out of thinking it through, the person needs to be as engaged as possible—no more, no less. For example, if you are good at math, you will need more challenging examples of new mathematical concepts to stay engaged than would someone who has less knowledge. Eliciting the generation effect. Simply recalling information—especially when effort is required—strengthens memory for that piece of information; the mere act of digging information out of memory reconstructs and strengthens the mental representation of the information. For example, a consequence of this principle is that frequent testing can enhance learning if it leads learners to recall relevant information (Butler & Roediger, 2007; Roediger & Karpicke, 2006). Engaging in deliberate practice. In some cases, to learn effectively you need to pay attention to and think through specific aspects of what you are learning. In particular, feedback helps you to correct aspects of a mental representation when it isn’t optimal (Brown, Roediger, & McDaniel, 2014; Ericsson, Krampe, & Tesch-Romer, 1993). For example, when learning French, it’s good to… ([Location 3353](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=3353)) - Tags: [[orange]] - These first four principles all focus strongly on the fact that more processing of the relevant information will produce better memory. The next three principles focus on ways to induce people to engage in additional processing. (My interrupting here and pointing this out should allow you to create two large groups for this set of principles, the first four and the second three, which respects the fact that we can store easily no more than four units in a “chunk,” as discussed below.) Using interleaving. Instead of just focusing on one type of problem (e.g., when doing math), it’s best to intermix different types of problems. The same principle implies (but to my knowledge has not yet been investigated) that when learning French, it’s best to do a bit of studying French, then some history, then some math, and then back to French. This makes sense because it’s easier to pay attention to something new than to sustain paying attention to the same material, extended over time. For example, all else being equal, you would probably learn the material in this chapter more effectively if you did something else after you finish this section, and returned to the second set of principles later. Inducing dual coding. If I give you a short paragraph to remember, you will recall it better if I also include some relevant illustrations. In general, presenting both verbal and visual material enhances memory. In this case, the brain stores multiple representations in memory (some verbal, some visual—which are stored in different parts of the brain), which gives you multiple shots at later digging the information out of storage (Kosslyn, 1994; Mayer, 2001… ([Location 3374](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=3374)) - Tags: [[orange]] - Evoking emotion. Leading someone to feel emotion when experiencing an event generally will enable him or her to recall that event more effectively. Emotion focuses attention and also causes the brain to devote extra resources to storing the information. Negative emotions in particular narrow attention and focus one on details. For such negative emotions, beta-blockers will remove this extra boost, which hints at the underlying pharmacological events that produce this extra processing (Erk et al., 2003; Levine & Pizarro, 2004; McGaugh, 2003, 2004). For example, if you are anxious about how an interview will go (and do not take beta-blockers), you probably will remember more details about the interview than if you are not anxious. To summarize, I’ve just reviewed seven principles, all of which are special cases of the maxim “Think it through.” Principles that underlie “Make and use associations” The second overarching maxim is “Make and use associations.” It is useful to distinguish two general classes of these principles. Structure information by using associations The first class is “Structure information by using associations.” Five principles fall in this category: Promoting chunking. As we saw in the case of the marathon runner who could memorize staggering numbers of randomly selected digits (Ericsson et al., 1980), you can use associations you already have in your memory to organize material into relatively few… ([Location 3391](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=3391)) - Tags: [[orange]] - manageable units clearly facilitates learning (e.g., Brown, Roediger, & McDaniel, 2014; Mayer & Moreno, 2003). Building on prior associations. When learning something new, the more associations you can find with information already stored in memory, the better (e.g., Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000; Glenberg & Robertson, 1999; Mayer, 2001). For example, when meeting a new person, you might better remember his name by associating his face with that of someone with the same name whom you already know. One way to do this is to visualize the face of the person you know and then morph that mental image into the face of the new person (Kosslyn, 1994). If you do this a few times, you will associate the new person’s face with that of the familiar person. And the familiar person’s face is already associated with the appropriate name. The fact that prior associations can be used to learn new information resolves an old conundrum: At one time researchers worried about a “paradox of the expert,” which hinged on the fact that the more you know, the easier it is to learn even more (Reder & Anderson, 1980; Smith, Adams, & Schorr, 1978). The intuition was that the more you know, the “fuller” memory should be—and hence it should be harder, not easier, to store new information. However, researchers have learned that the more information you already know, the more existing associations you can use to store new information. The more branches you have, the more leaves and fruit can be hung on this structure. Hence there’s no actual paradox. Presenting foundational material first. When complex information is to be acquired, learning is enhanced when a teacher takes advantage of existing associations to provide the most basic… ([Location 3411](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=3411)) - Tags: [[orange]] - The following two principles build on the previous ones but focus specifically on the relationship between examples and underlying principles. (By interrupting here and pointing this out, I hope to help you create two large chunks, which should help you get your mental arms around this material.) Exploiting appropriate examples. Abstract ideas cannot be fully understood without examples. But examples must be memorable, in part by being associated with prior information. Multiple examples of the same material must be associated with each other so that they form a cluster that is associated with the to-be-learned material. For example, when teaching the concept of far transfer, it’s not enough for me to provide the example that debate techniques learned in class should then be used months later when arguing politics with friends. You would need a few different examples of far transfer, and I would need to make sure that you have associated them with each other, even though on the surface they may appear very different (Hakel & Halpern, 2005). Relying on principles, not rote. Learning typically requires not just becoming familiar with examples but also understanding the underlying principles that organize and integrate examples (Kozma & Russell, 1997; Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000). For example, the key to far transfer is to distinguish between surface characteristics (the particular example) and underlying deep characteristics (which tell you which knowledge should be transferred to the present case). For instance, the principles of debate can also be used in teaching, but that doesn’t require… ([Location 3433](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=3433)) - Tags: [[orange]] - Create rich retrieval cues The other class of principles that falls under the maxim “Make and use associations” is “Create rich retrieval cues.” The key idea here is that you need to associate distinctive information with what you learn so that you later can be effectively reminded of it when you want to recall it. Dynamic mental representations arise from recent experiences or thoughts, and often are conscious; thus they are easy to recall. Structural representations, in contrast, are like the crates and boxes in that giant warehouse in the last scene of Raiders of the Lost Ark. We can retain uncounted numbers of such mental representations, and they often aren’t well organized. We access these representations by using cues and reminders. For example, you might associate one of those crates with a coffin, and hence seeing that shape would remind you of it (and you then could search for other such shapes, if the initial one turned out to be incorrect). Thus, to be easily recalled, it’s crucial that structural representations include characteristics that makes them easily cued later, which can include being associated with a distinctive time and place. The following principles can produce such cues. Creating associative chaining (a.k.a using story telling). Stories are built on a series of interlocking causes and effects—this is the essence of a plot. Creating an interlocking sequence of associations that has a narrative arc—that is, a story—to integrate material will not only help you create larger chunks (stories are one way to build associations to create chunks) but, more than that, you also can use each part of the story to cue the next part when you later recall the material. Such cueing can… ([Location 3452](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=3452)) - Tags: [[orange]] - Using spaced practice. Cramming may be an efficient way to study, but it’s a bad way to learn. Here’s an analogy: when I was young, I had a black wooden desk. I thought it would look much better if I painted it white. Being in a hurry, I ignored the advice to use several thin coats of paint rather than one thick coat. I poured on a single thick coat. At first, it seemed just fine; the black paint was covered up. But in practically no time, the paint began to chip—and soon the desk was a blotchy mess, much uglier than it was in the first place. Something similar happens with memory: Trying to store information in one fell swoop leaves it vulnerable to being lost. One reason for this is that if you cram, you will have only one set of retrieval cues, the associations set up the one time you stored the information. If you instead spread out studying over time, you will associate the material with lots of different cues (such as cues in the room or rooms where you study, your feelings at the time, and thoughts you have while considering the information). It is much better to use information repeatedly over a relatively long span of time than to try to cram it in all at once in the course of learning it (Brown, Roediger, & McDaniel, 2014; Cepeda et al., 2006, 2008; Cull, 2000). For example, when learning this material you might want to read it once, and then reread it a few times to review. Establishing different contexts. Far transfer is the holy grail of learning. As noted earlier, far transfer occurs when information learned in one context (e.g., a classroom) is retrieved and applied in a very different context (e.g., to a seemingly unrelated problem in a work environment years later). Far transfer appears to be possible in large part because one has learned a group of varied examples and has a firm grasp of the principles that underlie the relevant material (Hakel & Halpern, 2005; Van Merrienboer et al., 2006). But it also depends critically on knowing when learned information is relevant. To facilitate this, one should associate the material with numerous different contexts. For example, studying in different places will enhance your ability later to use the information in different contexts. ([Location 3470](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=3470)) - Tags: [[orange]] - Avoiding interference. Distinctive retrieval cues are crucial in part because they can help the learner avoid interference from other information (Adams, 1967; Anderson & Neely, 1996). Psychologists have documented two types of interference. Proactive interference occurs when material you have learned previously interferes with learning new information. For example, if you learned Spanish, you might have a problem learning that “de” is pronounced “duh” in French, not “day” as it is in Spanish. Retroactive interference occurs when learning new material impairs your ability to recall previously learned material. In the language example, once you learn the French pronunciation, you might have difficulty recalling the Spanish one. Creating distinctive retrieval cues can help you avoid both types of interference (e.g., you could associate the French pronunciation with an image of a French person having difficulty understanding why a learner is having this problem, perhaps dismissively saying “duh,” and a Spanish person taking a siesta in the middle of the “day”). Using the Principles The principles just summarized encompass a set of processes that underlie all learning. The principles are like letters of the alphabet; different combinations of the same principles can be used in different types of learning. Many “application techniques” have been developed to evoke different combinations of processes to produce effective learning. For example, researchers have shown that people learn effectively by explaining things to themselves (e.g., Chi et al., 1994). Creating an explanation is a special case of the generation effect, and checking to ensure that it is correct is part of deliberate practice. Thus the method is effective not because it introduces a new kind of cognitive processing but because it effectively recruits combinations of processes that underlie specific principles. Similarly, mnemonics can be a very effective way to learn. In fact, I relied on two of them ([Location 3489](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=3489)) - Tags: [[orange]] - in the above (the descriptions of learning new names and of avoiding interference both involved mnemonics). But there’s nothing special here: mnemonic techniques involve combinations of specific processes, such as deep processing and drawing on previous associations to form new ones. Conclusion The sixteen principles reviewed here underlie all forms of learning, ranging from learning a golf swing to learning copyright law to learning about the principles of learning. In many cases, you initially learn a set of rules or instructions that must be consciously mediated (through Kahneman’s [2011] “System 2”), and only after practice does the material become automatic (through Kahneman’s “System 1”). We at Minerva designed our curriculum from scratch and could be systematic and principled in doing so. We decided to take advantage of the science of learning, and so designed (and are continuing to design) every one of our classes to rely on application techniques: Every class is built around active… ([Location 3507](https://readwise.io/to_kindle?action=open&asin=B08BT642JF&location=3507)) - Tags: [[orange]] - learning, and every one of our active learning exercises draws on combinations of the principles just described. If these principles are respected in how material is presented and used, students will learn effectively--sometimes without even trying to learn.